tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-55801202662178483592024-03-05T00:36:03.561-08:00A Star in the EastTimothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.comBlogger16125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-5767260604618170202012-10-27T17:02:00.002-07:002012-10-27T17:02:59.059-07:00The Place of Astrology in Christian Thought (2006)
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The Place of Astrology in Christian Thought<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">by Timothy P. Grove<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Presented to Dr. Douglas Hayward<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">20 November 2006<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">(Moral Relativity 755)<br clear="all" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</b>Astrology has always been a “gray area” from the Christian point of
view.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Throughout the history of the
church, Astrology has been controversial—sometimes condemned as a form of
occultism, as a kind of idolatry, or a form of fatalism which was seen as
incompatible with Christian teachings; or extolled as a part of God’s truth and
His natural revelation to mankind.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Some
early Christian writers repudiated astrology absolutely, while others sought to
grant it some degree of accommodation to Christian beliefs and practices”
(Hegedus, 2003: ¶2). <o:p></o:p></div>
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Later on, some very eminent
Christian thinkers, including St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Bonaventura, conceded
the legitimacy of astrology as one means of studying and understanding God's
creation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the Renaissance,
astrology was regarded as a <o:p></o:p></div>
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legitimate and creditable field of study.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Most universities had professors of Astrology
at that time. Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler, who calculated and interpreted
horoscopes for kings and statesmen, were both devout Christians as well as
professional astrologers, and it is reported that Isaac Newton was also a student
of Astrology in his youth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
University of Salamanca had a chair of Astrology even into the early decades of
the nineteenth century (Torres Villarroel, 1743).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The special sub-discipline of Medical
Astrology was also highly regarded, and was an integral part of medical
practice until the eighteenth century; it was necessary to demonstrate some
knowledge of this branch of Astrology in order to qualify as a member of the
medical profession. Astrology was seen as a valuable component of human knowledge;
no serious contradiction was seen between the practice of Astrology and the
profession of Christianity. <o:p></o:p></div>
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During the eighteenth century (the
"Age of Reason"), astrology and revealed religion alike suffered from
the discrediting attacks of the Deists.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Astrologers as well as Christian believers were subjected to
ridicule.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, in recent times (the
past 300 years or so), astrology has been almost inextricably associated with
sorcery.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since 1700, virtually everyone
involved in Astrology (with some notable exceptions) has been an occultist and
an opponent to orthodox Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, prior to 1700, Astrology was highly esteemed.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As a
student and practitioner of Astrology for the past 23 years, I am able to
report much from my own experience and my own reading.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I have done a great deal of research on
Astrology, much of it using original sources in Latin and other languages.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One of the main questions I have asked is
whether one can indeed justify the study of Astrology in light of what the
Bible says about the matter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I will
attempt here to summarize what I have learned about these questions; because
much of what I have to report involves reading over a period of many years,
there will occasionally be cases where I am unable to cite the exact source for
some of the ideas.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, I will still
attempt to give an honest summary of what I have read, and will continue my
attempts to track down the original sources for future use.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The attacks
on Astrology by Christians are of three kinds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>First, certain biblical passages appear to condemn Astrology as a form
of witchcraft or divination.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Second,
Astrology has been seen as embodying a kind of Fatalism which was incompatible
with what Christian Theology teaches about Free Will.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Third, it is widely believed that whether
licit or not from the Christian point of view, Astrology is a pseudo-science
which has been conclusively invalidated by modern Science; so that it is at
best a waste of time.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The most
important thing I have learned as a student of Astrology is that virtually
everything that modern practitioners of Astrology do is based on ignorance,
misunderstanding, and invalid procedures.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The newspaper Astrology columns, of course, are nearly worthless.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If you go into Border’s or Barnes and Noble,
you will typically find an Astrology section with about 200 books
displayed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Of these, no more than five
or six (typically) provide even the slightest glimpse of the traditional
Astrology which was practiced in an unbroken tradition stretching from
approximately 400 B.C. until approximately 1800.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The rest of the books embody various
simplifications and innovations typical of “New Age” thinking and the
nineteenth-century Occult revival which preceded it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Only a handful of the techniques employed by
modern “astrologers” have any validity in light of the traditional
practice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I began to suspect this almost
immediately, shortly after I began my own study of Astrology back in the spring
of 1983.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unfortunately, most of the
texts I had access to were steeped in occultism, and I had to wade through an
awful lot of highly distasteful material along the way; eventually, however, I
succeeded in obtaining some of the primary sources in their original languages
(indeed, my original purpose in enrolling in Greek at Wheaton College had been
to obtain access to this material).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
the mid-1980’s, I became very interested in the project of re-examining the
Classical sources, with a view to re-establishing the study of Astrology on its
original foundation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I enrolled in the
Master’s program in Classics at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
with this in mind, and although I never completed that program I did learn a
great deal about traditional Astrology while I was there.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>My advisors at Illinois suggested that I ought
to prepare a modern, annotated edition of an astrological text.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are innumerable candidates for such
treatment, including texts which have not been printed since the fifteenth
century, and texts which remain in manuscript, never having been printed at any
time (though many of these are readily available on microfilm, or scans of them
are available on-line).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I have spent
many hours examining these texts, and although I have never edited one of them,
a great deal of what I know is based on the study of such sources in their
original language (usually Latin).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The primary
texts which establish what we now know as “traditional Astrology” are the
following:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Astronomica</i> of Manilius (1<sup>st</sup> century), Claudius
Ptolemy’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tetrabiblos</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Quadripartite</i>) (2<sup>nd</sup> century),
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Anthologies</i> of Vettius Valens (2<sup>nd</sup>
century), Porphyry’s commentary on the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tetrabiblos</i>
(3<sup>rd</sup> century), the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Apotelesmatica</i>
of Hephaestio Thebanus (4<sup>th</sup> century), the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mathesis</i> of Firmicus Maternus (4<sup>th</sup> century), the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Introductory Matters</i> of Paulus of
Alexandria (378 A.D.), with the 6<sup>th</sup> century commentary of one
Heliodorus (or Olympiodorus), the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Liber
Hermetis</i> (5<sup>th</sup> century), Proclus’ paraphrase of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tetrabiblos</i> (5<sup>th</sup> century),
and the treatises of Rhetorius of Egypt (6<sup>th</sup> or 7<sup>th</sup>
century) and Theophilus of Edessa (8<sup>th</sup> century).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are, in addition, numerous smaller
works extant from antiquity, such as Ptolemy’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Centiloquium </i>(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Karpos</i>),
the anonymous work <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">On the Fixed Stars</i>
(379 A.D.), and the extant fragments of Dorotheus, Thrasyllus, and Balbillus (all
1<sup>st</sup> century) and of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Thesaurus</i>
of Antiochus of Athens (2<sup>nd</sup> century), as well as a number of
important papyri, all of them illustrative of variations and subdivisions of
Hellenistic tradition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From outside the
Classical world, we have a very large number of Arabic works dating from the 8<sup>th</sup>
century onwards, many of which preserve and translate material from Classical
sources not otherwise extant; as well as Indian sources from as early as the 1<sup>st</sup>
century A.D., delineating a parallel tradition which is in many ways derived
from the Greek tradition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Book of Enoch</i> (discovered in the 18<sup>th</sup>
century in an Ethiopic translation) is replete with astrological material, as
are two surviving encyclopedic works from pre-Islamic Persia, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Denkard</i> and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bundahishn</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These last are
of the greatest importance because they incorporate the traditions of the
Persian magi; yet their astrological material has scarcely been studied as far
as I know.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Finally, there is the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kitab al-falaha al-nabatiya</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nabataean Agriculture)</i> of Ibn Wahshiyya
(c904 A.D.), which purportedly preserves many of the teachings and cultural
practices of the Sabeans of Harran.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Anyone who
calls himself an astrologer ought at least to possess copies of Ptolemy,
Firmicus Maternus, Vettius Valens, and Hephaestio, and should seek to become
thoroughly conversant with all that they contain.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Any approach to Astrology which is not based
on these primary sources is fraudulent.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This is a
vast subject, one on which I could easily write hundreds of pages.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, I will limit myself here to
attempting to establish a basis for the Christian practice of Astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The best way to begin this is to examine the
specific biblical passages which appear to condemn Astrology, as well as those
which appear to validate it.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The verses
which are most often put forward as embodying a clear condemnation of Astrology
are to be found in the Pentateuch:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“Ye shall not eat any thing with the
blood: neither shall ye use enchantment, nor observe times” (Leviticus 19:26).<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“There shall not be
found among you any that maketh his son or his daughter to pass through the
fire, or that useth divination, or an observer of times, or an enchanter, or a
witch.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Or a charmer, or a consulter with
familiar spirits, or a wizard, or a necromancer. (Deuteronomy 18:10-11).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
It has been widely taught that
“observing times” refers to the practices of astrologers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, an analysis of the Hebrew text fails
to support this idea.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the Leviticus
passage, the verbs N-H-SH and ‘-N-N are used.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The first of these is probably best translated as “to practice augury”,
meaning the practice of divination using natural phenomena such as the flights
of birds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second verb (‘-N-N) is an
obscure term whose meaning is not clearly understood.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Etymology suggests that it may be related to
the noun <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">‘anan </i>(“cloud”), in which
case it may refer to a form of divination involving the changing configuration
of clouds (Hartley, 1992).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This
suggestion appears to originate with Ibn Ezra, a Jewish commentator of the 11th
century (Christensen, 2001).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since the
exact meaning of ‘-N-N is unknown, it is best to translate it with a general
term such as “sorcery” or “divination.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>There is absolutely no basis for reading a condemnation of Astrology
into this verse.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
The Deuteronomy passage provides a
long and explicit list of activities which the<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
LORD forbids:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>first,
people are forbidden to sacrifice their children in the fire to Molech.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Then, a number of specific occult practices
are enumerated:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">qosem qesamim</i> (“divining divination”)—this is perhaps a reference
to hepatoscopy or other forms of divination using the organs of sacrificial
victims (Christensen, 2001).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since a
participle (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">qosem</i>) is used instead of
a prohibition (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">lo tiqsom</i>), the
divination is probably to be understood as directly relating to the
child-sacrifice, i.e. “thou shalt not sacrifice your children, practicing
divination.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Similar prohibitions
follow, all of them participles:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">me‘onen</i> (meaning unknown, but this is
the same verb used in Leviticus 19:26; if Ibn Ezra’s suggestion is correct, it
might refer to the practice of divination by observing the smoke of an altar or
furnace); <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">menaches</i> (practicing
divination using liquids—this is the same verb used in connection with Joseph’s
silver goblet, which he used to practice divination [Genesis 44:5]); <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mekhashsheph</i> (“using witchcraft [black
magic]”); <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chover chaver</i> (“casting
spells”—in Psalm 58:5 this verb refers to divination using snakes); <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sho’el ’ov we-yidde‘oni</i> (“inquiring of a
ghost or familiar spirit”—<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">’ov</i> may
mean “ghost” or “pit”, probably because communication with the dead was
facilitated by pouring blood or other offerings into a hole in the ground and
speaking and listening through that hole; <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">’ov</i>
is also sometimes used to refer to the medium himself; <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">yidde‘oni</i> [“familiar spirit”] is always used in conjunction with <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">’ov</i>, suggesting that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">’ov we-yidde‘oni</i> [“ghost or familiar
spirit”] was a fixed expression); <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">doresh
el-hammethim</i> (“consulting the dead”, i.e. by any other means not
specifically mentioned here) (Christensen, 2001).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>All these
prohibitions have to do with specific ways of contacting the dead in the
context of human sacrifice—either using the spirits of the sacrificial victims
themselves or using the victims as intermediaries to consult other
spirits.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The entire passage is best
translated as follows:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“There
shall not be found among you one who causes his son or daughter to pass through
the fire, while practicing divination using their entrails, smoke, body fluids,
or practicing witchcraft by this means; nor as a means of casting spells,
contacting a ghost or familiar spirit, or otherwise consulting the dead” (my
translation).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Again,
there is nothing whatever to suggest Astrology in this passage; indeed the
context makes this impossible.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Another passage frequently cited as a prohibition of
Astrology is the following:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">“And beware not to lift up
your eyes to heaven and see the sun and the moon and the stars, all the host of
heaven, and be drawn away and worship them and serve them, those which the LORD
your God has allotted to all the peoples under the whole heaven.” (Deuteronomy
4:19 NASB).<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">There are indeed some astrologers who practice their
art in support of various kinds of demonolatry, and who may indeed be
implicated in the worship of the “host of heaven”; however, most astrologers
are merely practitioners of a precise mathematical discipline, which will
always yield the same results (given the same data), no matter who performs the
calculations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I fail to see the
“opening” in this rigorous procedure which would allow for the influence of
supernatural spirits.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nothing is
worshipped; nothing is invoked—which being the case, this verse would have no
application to Astrology.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“Let now the astrologers, the
stargazers, the monthly prognosticators, stand up, and save thee from these
things that shall come upon thee.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Behold, they shall be as stubble; the fire shall burn them; they shall
not deliver themselves from the power of the flame:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>there shall not be a coal to warm at, nor
fire to sit before it” (Isaiah 47:13-14).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Here,
astrologers are clearly indicated as “those dividing the heavens” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hoverei shamayim</i>), “those gazing at the
stars” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hachozim bakkokhavim</i>),
“predicting according to the months” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">modi‘im
lechodashim</i>). Kepler was apparently influenced by this passage when he
decided to abandon the seemingly artificial division of the heavens into twelve
mundane houses, which all astrologers had practiced until his time, basing his
prognoses solely on the division of the Zodiac into twelve visible
constellations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These are the only
verses in the Bible which appear to explicitly condemn Astrology. However, this
is true only when the passage is read out of context.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That context is Isaiah's denunciation of the
entire nation and culture of Babylon.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Let me cite some parallel passages:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Their banquets are
accompanied by lyre and harp, by tambourine and flute, and by wine; <o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">But they do not pay
attention to the deeds of the LORD, Nor do they consider the work of His hands.</i><span style="color: black;"> (Isaiah 5:12)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Who has planned this
against Tyre, the bestower of crowns, Whose merchants were princes, whose
traders were the honored of the earth?</i> (Isaiah 23:8)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
My point is that astrology <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">per se</i> is not condemned in Isaiah
47:13-14, any more than banquets, music, and wine are condemned in Isaiah 5:12,
or mercantilism is condemned in Isaiah 23:8.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>All of these function as descriptive details only; thus, this passage is
not prohibitive, but descriptive. “To say that the astrologers could not save
Babylon because of her misdeeds is like saying a doctor cannot save a patient
because he has abused his body.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such
line of reasoning is neither a condemnation of astrologers or doctors” (Dewey,
“Old Testament,” ¶30).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“Thus saith the LORD, Learn not the
way of the heathen, and be not dismayed at the signs of heaven; for the heathen
are dismayed at them” (Jeremiah 10:2).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This
passage is comparable to the Isaiah passage just discussed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What is condemned is the superstitious terror
of the stars which the heathen experienced because they were subject to demons
and ignorant of God.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Israelites are
enjoined to place their trust in God who created the stars, rather than
succumbing to fear of the calamities the stars portend.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In our own day, a similar comment could be
made with reference to our anxiety about the economy, the environment,
terrorism, or world politics—all of which are routinely analyzed by “experts;”
yet the outcome remains in God’s hands.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In the words of Rumen Kolev, whom I consider to be the finest living
astrologer, <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dear Colleague astrologer:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I have examined and inquired into this <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
most elaborate part of Astrology,
the Great Doctrine of the Primary <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Directions, which surely is the
Crown and the Fame and the Glory <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
of our fascinating science, for 19
years and very laboriously so in the <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
last 6 years. . . . From what
learned from these 19 years of hard work, <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
I can advise you:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>. . . For factors supporting the current
primary <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
directions, assess also the
Progressions, the Eclipses, the Ingressions <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
and the Transits. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They may show, God Willing, some minor events.
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Never dishearten, burden or forsee
[<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sic</i>] evil for any living creature. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Never forget that only God Almighty
Knows Everything” (Kolev, 2002). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Various
passages from the book of Daniel are also cited by those who claim the Bible
forbids Astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In contrast to
Daniel, the Chaldaean astrologers (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kasdim</i>)
were unable to<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>reveal or interpret the
king’s dream (Daniel 2), and Daniel and his companions are said to have
surpassed them in insight and knowledge (Daniel 1:20).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It must be remembered that Daniel and his
companions were trained in all the sciences of the Chaldaeans in order that
they might function as advisors to the king (Daniel 1:17).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, Daniel was himself an astrologer, among
other things, and eventually became the prefect (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">rab-sigenin</i>) over all the “wise men” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chakkimin</i>) of Babylon (Daniel 2:48). There is no indication in the
text that Daniel or his companions refused to study any part of the curriculum
placed before them.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In short,
the only authentic references to Astrology in the entire Old Testament are
Isaiah 47:13 and Jeremiah 10:2.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These
passages ridicule the astrology of the heathen in the context of a critique of
many heathen cultural institutions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>None
of this amounts to a prohibition of astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The oft-cited passages in Leviticus 19:26 and Deuteronomy 18:10-11 are
condemnations of various kinds of divination, mostly involving communication
with the dead.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If these statements are
generalized into a condemnation of every form of divination, then they might be
invoked against Geomancy, Horary Astrology and other forms of astrological
divination, but they still could not be generalized to a condemnation of all
forms of Astrology.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Thus, Astrology is not “expressly
prohibited in the Word of God,” as numerous Christian teachers claim, nor is it
“occultic and very dangerous,” or an “entry for malevolent influences”
(Missler, 2002).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These charges make no
sense because Astrology is not a form of divination, an act of worship, or an
attempt to communicate with the spirit world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Astrologers simply make a chart of the actual positions of the stars and
planets at a given moment, and then analyze that chart according to traditional
rules.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Any person who understands the
procedure will get the same result, just as anyone who solves a math problem
correctly will get the same answer.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Where in this process is there an “entry for malevolent influences”?<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It might even be asked whether the Bible actually
condemns the practice of divination.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
Genesis 44:5, Joseph’s stolen drinking cup is found:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“</span><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Is not this it in which my lord drinketh, and whereby indeed
he divineth?”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The phrase <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hu naches yenaches bo</i> (“he divineth in
it”) employs an especially strong form of the verb, expressing emphasis,
certainty, importance, intensity, frequency, or emotion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is very curious that the same intensive
form is repeated in verse 15:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">naches yenaches ish asher kamoni</i> (“such
a man as I can certainly divine”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yet
this practice is in no way censured or condemned, and the entire account of
Joseph portrays him consistently as a good and admirable figure, an almost
perfect character.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This tends to imply
that there was nothing wrong with the “divination by liquids” which Joseph practiced.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The prohibition of the same activity (N-CH-S)
in Deuteronomy 18:10 may thus refer only to its use in the context of
child-sacrifice and/or contacting the dead.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Moreover, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">urim</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">thummim</i>
(instituted in Exodus 28:30 and mentioned from time to time throughout the Old
Testament) were clearly some form of divination.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also, lots (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">goral</i>) were used to make decisions repeatedly throughout the Old
Testament—to apportion the land among the tribes (Numbers 26:52-56), to
determine guilt (Joshua 7:13-18), and for various other purposes, sometimes at
God’s specific direction, sometimes not.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Finally, even in the New Testament, the Apostles chose a successor to
Judas by lot (Acts 1:23-26).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is no
indication in the text that they were divinely instructed to do this, although
it does say that they prayed first to seek God’s guidance. “</span><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">And they gave forth their
lots; and the lot fell upon Matthias; and he was numbered with the eleven
apostles” (Acts 1:26).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">There is a passage in Proverbs which provides a basis
for all of this: “</span><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">The lot is cast into the lap; but its decision is from the Lord"
(Proverbs 16:33).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Based on all of this,
a case could certainly be made for some form of Christian divination which
seeks to ascertain the will of God.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In any
case, I have established to my own satisfaction that the Bible contains no
prohibition of Astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On the other
side, there are a number of biblical passages which actually appear to validate
Astrology:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“And God said, Let there be lights
in the firmament of the heaven to divide the day from the night; and let them
be for signs, and for seasons, and for days, and years:” (Genesis 1:14).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
This verse provides the whole basis
for what astrologers do.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We examine the
heavens for signs which are relevant to events taking place on earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I challenge anyone to give an intelligent
interpretation of the word "signs" (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">othoth</i>) as meaning anything else.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The word “seasons” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mo‘adim</i>)
refers to any time-interval which is defined by celestial phenomena.<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">“Lo, I have had still
another dream; and behold, the sun and the moon and eleven stars were bowing
down to me" (Genesis 37:9).<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It is interesting to compare Joseph’s dream to Jacob’s
blessings of his twelve sons (Genesis 49), a passage which contains much
probable astrological symbolism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Indeed
the Twelve Tribes (as well as the Twelve Apostles) have traditionally been
associated with the twelve signs of the Zodiac.<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Concerning
the “seven lamps” of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">menorah</i>
(Exodus 25:37), Josephus states that “each lamp represented a planet and the
seventh candle was symbolic to the Jews of the planet Saturn as well as the
seventh day” (Dewey, “Old Testament,” ¶54).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“The stars in their course fought
against Sisera” (Judges 5:20).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">This
verse strongly supports the claim of Astrology that earthly events are
influenced or determined by the movements of the heavenly bodies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Recently, while using a “Study Bible”, I came
across the following patronizing comment on this passage:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“This verse has been cited as a validation of
astrology; however, there is no basis for this.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I can explain this writer’s stance only as
the expression of a Christian world-view that is fundamentally opposed to the
world-view of Astrology; as a reaction to what the Bible actually says, I find
it entirely inexplicable.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.5pt;">When the morning stars sang together, and all the sons of
God shouted for joy” (Job 38:7).<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.5pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This verse implies that the planets
(and fixed stars?) are animate in some sense, perhaps that they are angelic
beings of some kind.</span><span style="font-family: Times;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“Canst thou bind the sweet
influences of the Pleiades, or loose the bands of Orion?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Canst thou bring forth Mazzaroth in his
season?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Or canst thou guide Arcturus
with his sons?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Knowest thou the
ordinances of heaven?” (Job 38:31-33).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Pleiades, Orion, and Arcturus
are all important fixed stars, while the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mazzaroth</i>
(or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mazzaloth</i>) are the twelve signs
of the Zodiac; this term is used in another passage: <span style="font-family: Times;">“</span><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">them
also that burned incense unto Baal, to the sun, and to the moon, and to the
planets, and to all the host of heaven” (2 Kings 23:5, where the word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mazzaloth</i> should be translated
“constellations,” rather than “planets”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The Job passage implies a number of important things:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>first, the reference to the “sweet
influences” of the Pleiades implies a real and direct influence of the stars on
human affairs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Second, the verbs “bind,”
“loose,” “bring forth,” and “guide” clearly imply that God is in control of the
stars and their influences.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although
from a human point of view, astrological influences appear to be inevitable and
fatal in their necessity, God still stands above the entire mechanism, since He
created it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Again, as Kolev affirms, “</span>only
God Almighty Knows Everything” (Kolev, 2002).<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“The heavens declare the glory of
God; and the firmament sheweth his handywork” (Psalm 19:1).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This
concept of “declaration” implies and legitimates some kind of interpretation,
which is the very task astrologers are engaged in.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“He telleth the number of the stars;
he calleth them all by their names” (Psalm 147:4).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“A name in
ancient Hebrew was suggestive of different characteristics similar to modern
astrological description of the planets” (Dewey, “Old Testament”, ¶39).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“Thus saith the LORD, which giveth
the sun for a light by day, and the ordinances of the moon and of the stars for
a light by night . . .” (Jeremiah 31:35).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The use here of the word<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> chuqqoth </i>(“ordinances,” “statutes”) is
very interesting.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The term refers to
various Old Testament commandments which were of an immutable nature.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this context, “appointed times” might be
an appropriate translation.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“Now when Jesus was born in
Bethlehem of Judaea in the days of Herod the king, behold, there came wise men
from the east to Jerusalem, saying, Where is he that is born King of the
Jews?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For we have seen his star in the
east, and are come to worship him” (Matthew 2:1-2).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The famous
story of the Magi (Matthew 2:1-12) is the most important biblical text relating
to Astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There can be no doubt that
these <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">magoi</i> (“magi,” “magians,” “wise
men”) were Persian (or perhaps Indian) astrologers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is interesting to note that there are
other appearances of the word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">magos</i>
(and its derivatives) in the New Testament in Acts 8:9 (the account of Simon
Magus [“Simon the sorcerer”]), and in Acts 13:6-8 (the account of the sorcerer
Elymas Bar-Jesus).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is also very
interesting to compare these passages:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>the Magi who brought gifts to Jesus are portrayed in entirely positive
terms.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their activities are neither
explicitly nor implicitly condemned in any way.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Simon Magus and Elymas, by contrast, are clearly to be seen as <span style="font-family: Times;">villains; so it appears that there were Magi of both
sorts!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is interesting to note that
there are extensive extra-biblical accounts of both:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the names of the “Three Wise Men” (probably
because of the three gifts they brought) are given by Bede (8<sup>th</sup>
century) as Melchior, Balthasar, and Caspar, the kings of Arabia, Ethiopia, and
Tarsus, respectively.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, this
tradition appears to be no older than the 6<sup>th</sup> century, and may be
based on an interpretation of Isaiah 72:10 (“ </span><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">The kings of Tarshish and the Isles shall offer
gifts, the kings of Arabia and Seba shall bring tribute”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, Syriac and Persian sources give
names for all three which appear to be Persian or Indian in origin (“Concerning
the Magi and their names”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is
another tradition that there were <u>twelve</u> Magi in all, and that “one of
the special gifts they brought to the Christ was an ancient scroll written by
Seth, the son of Adam. This scroll was said to contain prophesies of the
Messiah and the signs which would appear at his birth” (Dewey, “New Testament
2,”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>¶14).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It becomes very clear that the Magi
located the infant Christ by means of Astrology if the text is read in light of
what we know about ancient astrological practices.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The phrase “we have seen his star in the
east” (Matthew 2:2) is better translated as “we have seen his star at its
rising”, since the verse employs the common astrological phrase <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">en te anatole</i>, by which a star’s
heliacal rising is meant.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Later (Matthew
2:9), it is stated that “the star, which they saw in the east, went before
them, till it came and stood over where the young child was.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The phrase <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">este epano</i> (“stood over”) would be more accurately translated “went
stationary direct”, a technical term referring to the apparent cessation of a
retrograde planet’s motion, just prior to its resuming direct motion. </span>This
and other details found in Matthew 2 can all be accounted for in terms of
predictive and horary astrology as it was understood and practiced at that
time.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">Numerous suggestions have been made as to what
astronomical phenomena were involved, including the triple conjunction of
Jupiter and Saturn which occurred in 7-6 B.C., a comet, a supernova, or various
other planetary configurations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Michael
Molnar is probably correct in arguing (in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Star of Bethlehem:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Legacy of the
Magi</i>, 1999) that “Matthew does not refer to a celestial phenomenon that was
astronomically impressive (such as later astronomers have looked for), but
rather to a sign whose significance was primarily astrological” (Hegedus, 2003:
note 15).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Early Christian commentators saw a
connection between the coming of the Magi and the ancient prophecy of Balaam
that “a star shall arise out of Jacob” (Numbers 24:17).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to Origen (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Homilies on Numbers</i> 13.7), “it is said that the race of magi
descends from [Balaam], and that their institution flourishes in eastern lands,
and that they had copied among them all of Balaam’s prophecies, including ‘A
star shall arise out of Jacob.’<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Magi
had these things written among themselves, and so when Jesus was born they
recognized the star and understood that the prophecy was fulfilled” (Hegedus,
2003: ¶16).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is interesting to note
that Bar Kochba, who led the second Jewish revolt against Rome (135 A.D.)
apparently derived his name (“son of the star”) from this same passage
(Hegedus, 2003).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although he regarded
Astrology as demonic, Jerome had to admit that the Magi followed the star
“either from their knowledge of astrology (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ex
artis scientia</i>) or from the prophecy of Balaam” (Hegedus, 2003: ¶18).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ambrosiaster says of Balaam that he “received
confirmation from a source that is usually condemned; for astrologers are
enemies of the truth” (Hegedus, 2003: ¶18).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Despite their hostility to Astrology, these comments demonstrate that
the Patristic writers were attempting to deal honestly with what the biblical
text actually says.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>More recent Christian attempts to
deal with Matthew 2 frequently fall into absurdity. </span><span style="color: black; font-family: Times;">Based on <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a priori</i> assumptions, various commentators have attempted to argue
either that the Magi were not really astrologers, or that their journey from
the East was not in any way guided or motivated by their knowledge of Astrology
(“it was not any astrological prediction that led them to Bethlehem!”), or that
“</span><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">their
presence in the biblical record is not a divine endorsement of astrology”
(Wiersbe).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">One commentator states that
“even in the midst of their involvement with the occult, God used a star to
point them to the truth” (Jarvis, 2003b: ¶2).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Another claims that <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: black;">3 witches came and found Jesus through a star . . . He
allowed these <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">men to
find Jesus because of this scripture ‘I'll have compassion on whom <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">I'll have
compassion and mercy on whom I'll have mercy’ . . . He allowed <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">those men
to find him. And think about this. He MAY have allowed us to <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">see this
in action just to show us how real witchcraft is. How real astrology <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">and
astronomy is. And that real results can manifest in that practice. And <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">that it's
not a joke but real indeed. So that we may not be ignorant <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">(“Astrology
and the Bible,” 2003).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">“Immediately after the
tribulation of those days shall the sun be darkened, and the moon shall not
give her light, and the stars shall fall from heaven, and the powers of the
heavens shall be shaken: And then shall appear the sign of the Son of man in
heaven: and then shall all the tribes of the earth mourn, and they shall see
the Son of man coming in the clouds of heaven with power and great glory”
(Matthew 24:29-30).<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The most obvious meaning of “the
sign of the Son of man” is the Cross.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This passage may predict a catastrophic tipping of the earth’s
axis,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>resulting in worldwide visibility
of the Southern Cross (currently invisible to most of the world’s population).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“And surely<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I am
with you always, even to the end of the age (Matthew 28:20 NIV).<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“The age” may refer to the doctrine of the Great Year,
the precessional cycle of 25,920 years, which Origen believed was the full
cycle of redemptive history (“Biblical Astrology”).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“There
shall be signs in the sun, and in the moon, and in the stars” (Luke 21:25).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Jesus
himself here makes clear reference to Astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The plural <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">astrois</i> is very often used in reference to the 12 zodiacal
constellations, and that meaning cannot be ruled out here (Dewey, “New
Testament 1”).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">“His tail drew a third of
the stars of heaven. . . . And war broke out in heaven: Michael and his angels
fought against the dragon; and the dragon and his angels fought” (</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Verdana; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;"><a href="http://bibletools.org/index.cfm/fuseaction/Bible.show/sVerseID/30896/eVerseID/30896"><u style="text-underline: #0014EE;"><span style="color: windowtext; font-family: Times; text-decoration: none; text-underline: #0014EE; text-underline: none;">Revelation
12:4</span></u></a></span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">, 7).<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">This passage, like Job 38:7, appears to identify the
stars as angelic beings; the “dragon” may possibly be a reference to the
important circumpolar constellation of Draco, with its 31 stars.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Draco is of great significance because it
encircles the North Ecliptic Pole (the fixed point in the heavens around which
the circle of precession revolves once every 25,920 years).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is also the only constellation which can
be projected around (almost) the entire ecliptic circle.</span><span style="font-family: Times;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“I am the root and the offspring of
David, and the bright and morning star” (Revelation 22:16).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Thus, the
first chapter of the Bible establishes an astrological system of signs,
seasons, days and years, while the last chapter of the Bible identifies Jesus
as “the bright and morning star,” the consummation of all astrological “signs.”<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In light of
what the Bible actually does (and does not) say about Astrology, it is
astonishing to read comments like the following:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Astrology, along with occult and new age practices, is a ‘doorway’ <o:p></o:p></div>
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for dark spiritual forces to enter
and influence a person’s life. . . . In <o:p></o:p></div>
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the Bible, astrology is often
lumped together with other magic arts, <o:p></o:p></div>
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fortune-telling, and sorcery.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All of these are dangerous, in that they <o:p></o:p></div>
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can mislead people, and even open
them up to temptation or even <o:p></o:p></div>
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demonic influence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So, does the Bible talk about astrology?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Absolutely. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It affirms that astrology is dangerous,
useless, and wicked.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is sinful <o:p></o:p></div>
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because it draws attention away
from the only One with real answers <o:p></o:p></div>
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for life . . . God Himself!
(Jarvis, 2003a).<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It is hard
to understand what is motivating this kind of (seemingly deliberate)
misrepresentation.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Finally, a
few words must be said in answer to the charge that Astrology is a pseudo-science
whose claims do not bear up under objective scrutiny.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Most of the attempted refutations of
Astrology<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>are put together by people
whose writings clearly demonstrate that they don’t know enough about Astrology
to make statements about it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Among the more
common lines of argument are criticisms of the astrology columns in the
newspapers (“how can one-twelfth of the population be having the same kind of
day today?”), which no professional astrologer takes seriously anyway.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also frequently heard is the charge that
Astrology is overturned by the dramatically different life-experiences reported
by identical twins (in fact a difference of as little as a few seconds in
birth-times will result in a dramatically different sequence of life-events).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Another tiresome claim is that the precession
of the earth’s axis somehow invalidates Astrology, since the zodiacal
constellation of Aries (for example) no longer corresponds to the actual stars
of Aries—in fact the phenomenon of precession was clearly understood and is
discussed in the earliest extant Hellenistic texts on Astrology, where the
divergence of the sidereal and tropical zodiacs is described in detail.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, much is made of the fact that
the planets Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto were discovered long after the rules of
Astrology had been established—this is supposed to somehow invalidate the
entire system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, traditional
astrologers <span style="color: black;">have never included those planets in
their calculations because they are not visible, and the entire edifice of Hellenistic
astrological practice is based on the concept of stars and planets casting and
receiving visual rays (or aspects).</span> Above all, it is objected that the
astrological “influences” cannot be explained in terms of gravity or any other
known force.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, <span style="color: black;">astrologers do not claim that planetary influence is
exerted as “gravitational pull” or “tidal force”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In simple terms, astrological influence is
“action at a distance,” an idea once dismissed by science but now made
plausible by quantum physics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It may be
understood in terms of geometrical relationships (most strongly felt when
angles are nearly exact), or in terms of “synchronicity” (in other words, the
relationship is not causal, but coincidental or concurrent).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Astrologers view the universe as a whole,
with all of its parts interrelated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It
is interesting that, with the rise of chaos theory, string theory, and the
mathematics of fractals, science is beginning to share our viewpoint!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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It is no secret that Christian
churches today generally teach that Astrology is a form of occult practice,
dishonoring to God and extremely dangerous to those who practice it or look
into it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, it is my belief that “all
truth is God's truth”; therefore, if Astrology has any truth in it, that truth
is from God and we honor Him by studying it.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="all" style="page-break-before: always;" />
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 4;"> </span>WORKS
CITED<o:p></o:p></div>
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“Biblical Astrology” (n.d.).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Retrieved 13 December 2006 from<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>http://www.usbible.com/Astrology/bible_astrology.htm<o:p></o:p></div>
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Christensen, D. (2001).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Deuteronomy 1:1 – 21:9.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Word Biblical Commentary</i>, vol. 6A,<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>revised.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Nashville:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thomas Nelson.<o:p></o:p></div>
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“Concerning the Magi and their names.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Retrieved 13 December 2006 from<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>http://www.hymnsandcarolsofchristmas.com/Hymns_and_Carols/Biographies/<o:p></o:p></div>
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concerning_the_magi_and_their_na.htm<o:p></o:p></div>
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Dewey, J. (n.d.).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“Astrology and the Old Testament.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Retrieved 13 December 2006<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>from
http://www.thenewagesite.com/astrology/1.php<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Dewey, J. (n.d.).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“Astrology and the New Testament, Part 1.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Retrieved 13 December<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>2006 from http://www.thenewagesite.com/astrology/2.php<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Dewey, J. (n.d.).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Astrology
and the New Testament, Part 2.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Retrieved 13 December<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>2006 from
http://www.thenewagesite.com/astrology/3.php<o:p></o:p></div>
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Hartley, J. (1992).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Leviticus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Word Biblical Commentary</i>, vol. 4.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Dallas:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Word Books.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Hegedus, T (2003).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“The Magi and the star in the Gospel of Matthew and early Christian<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>tradition.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Laval
theologique et philosophique</i> 59:1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Retrieved 9 December 2006<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>from
http://www.erudit.org/revue/ltp/2003/v59/n1/000790ar.html<o:p></o:p></div>
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Jarvis, D. (2003a).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“Astrology in the Bible?”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Retrieved 13 December 2006 from<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>http://www.absolutetruth.net/astrology/page5.html<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Jarvis, D. (2003b).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“Following the Star”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Retrieved 13
December 2006 from<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>http://www.absolutetruth.net/astrology/page6.html<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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Kolev, R.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>(2002).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Practical advice from
the author.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Placidus</i> 4.1 [software package]<o:p></o:p></div>
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Missler, C. (2002).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“Dangerous myths: astrology.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Retrieved 13 December 2006 from<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>http://www.khouse.org/articles/2002/414<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times;">Torres Villarroel, D.
(1743).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.5pt;">Vida,
ascendencia, nacimiento, crianza y aventuras del<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>doctor don Diego de Torres y Villarroel.</span></i><span style="font-family: Times;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="all" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times; font-size: 14.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Is
Astrology an Acceptable Practice for Christians?<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 5;"> </span>by<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 4;"> </span>Timothy
P. Grove<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 4;"> </span>13
December 2006<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dr. Douglas Hayward<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>ISCL
755 (Christian Morality and Cultural Relativity)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<span style="font-family: Verdana; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="all" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana;">Then the
"Magi" are mentioned by some to defend astrology. First,
"Magian" <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana;">or "magi"
was once a specific term, but later became used generally of all <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 18.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: Verdana;">Median wise men,
and those from elsewhere. These might or might not have <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana;">been Zoroastrians,
might or might not have been astrologers. BUT IT WAS NOT <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana;">ANY ASTROLOGICAL
PREDICTION THAT LED THEM TO BETHLEHEM. These were men who <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Verdana;">knew the ancient
Scripture, "There shall come a star out of Jacob," NUMBERS <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Verdana;">24:17.</span> (However, in
both the forgoing passages, the verb translated as “observe times” is
ANAN.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the meaning of this term
is obscure; it appears to be related to the observation of clouds, and any
connection to Astrology is highly dubious. Does a verse like “Physician, heal
thyself!” amount to a condemnation of the medical profession?<o:p></o:p></div>
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Later on, some very eminent
Christian thinkers, including St. Thomas Aquinas and St. Bonaventura, conceded
the legitimacy of astrology as one means of studying and understanding God's
creation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During the Renaissance,
astrology was regarded as a legitimate and creditable field of study.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Most universities had professors of astrology
at that time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Johannes Kepler, the
renowned astronomer, calculated and interpreted horoscopes for kings and
statesmen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>No conflict was perceived to
exist between astrology and science, or between astrology and Christian
belief.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In recent times (the past 300
years or so), astrology has been almost inextricably associated with sorcery.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since 1700, virtually everyone involved in
astrology (with some notable exceptions) has been an occultist and an opponent
to orthodox Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, prior
to 1700, Astrology was highly esteemed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Major universities had chairs of Astrology, and Astrology was seen as a
valuable component of human knowledge; no serious contradiction was seen
between the practice of Astrology and the profession of Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler were
both devout Christians and professional astrologers, and it is reported that
Isaac Newton was also a student of Astrology in his youth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The University of Salamanca had a chair of
Astrology even into the early decades of the 19<sup>th</sup> century (Torres
Villarroel, ).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The special
sub-discipline of Medical Astrology was also highly regarded, and was an
integral part of medical practice until the 18<sup>th</sup> century; it was
necessary to demonstrate some knowledge of this branch of Astrology in order to
qualify as a member of the medical profession.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Isaac Newton, perhaps the greatest theoretical physicist of
all time, was also an astrologer, and left several thousand pages of writings
on that subject.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, during the 18<sup>th</sup>
century (the "Age of Reason"), astrology and revealed religion alike
suffered from the discrediting attacks of the Deists.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Astrologers as well as Christian believers
were subjected to ridicule.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<!--EndFragment-->Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-40626110464478561542012-07-23T22:21:00.003-07:002012-07-23T22:21:36.282-07:00Materials for a Comprehensive History of the Caucasus, with an Emphasis on Greco-Roman sources (2012)<br />
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<b>Materials for a Comprehensive History of the Caucasus, with an Emphasis on Greco-Roman sources</b></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Caucasus has always been a very important crossroads for trade, invasion, and cultural exchange between Europe and Asia. As Pliny the Elder stated (<i>Naturalis historia</i> VI.xii.30), <i>ibi loci terrarum orbe portis discluso</i> “there the world is divided into two parts by the [Caucasian] Gates.” The truth of this statement will be seen in the remarkable confluence of Eastern and Western influences in the Georgian astrological manuscripts that are the focus of this study.</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>Prehistory</b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Human habitation in the Caucasus goes back to the remotest antiquity. The hominid remains discovered in 1991 by David Lordkipanidze at Dmanisi, Kvemo Kartli (1.8 million years old) are the oldest found outside of Africa (Zatiashvili, 2008). Neanderthal remains have been found at Ortvale K’lde (1973) and elsewhere in the Caucasus (36,000-50,000 years old). </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Georgian language, along with its congeners Mingrelian, Laz, and Svan, comprises the Kartvelian (South Caucasian) linguistic phylum. The initial breakup of Proto-Kartvelian is believed to have begun around 2500-2000 B.C., with the divergence of Svan from Proto-Kartvelian (Nichols, 1998). Assyrian, Urartian, Greek, and Roman documents reveal that in early historical times (2<sup>nd</sup>-1<sup>st</sup> millennia B.C.), the numerous Kartvelian tribes were in the process of migrating into the Caucasus from the southwest. The northern coast and coastal mountains of Asia Minor were dominated by Kartvelian peoples at least as far west as Samsun. Their eastward migration may have been set in motion by the fall of Troy (dated by Eratosthenes to 1183 B.C.). It thus appears that the Kartvelians represent an intrusion into the Georgian plain from northeastern Anatolia, displacing their predecessors, the unrelated Northwest Caucasian and Vainakh peoples, into the Caucasian highlands (Tuite, 1996b; Nichols, 2004). </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Kartvelian linguistic area was formerly much more extensive. Not only did it formerly extend far to the west, but there are numerous lines of evidence (reviewed in Grove, 2011) which suggest that the Kartvelians, as well as the peoples of the North Caucasus, were involved in the late-prehistoric development of metallurgy and the associated trade-routes, traveling eastward as far as the Altai Mountains and Lake Baikal. These ancient trade routes would eventually become the Silk Road. Linguistic evidence suggests that there were formerly Kartvelian-speaking areas extending southeastwards into modern Azerbaijan, as well as in the Alborz mountains along the southern end of the Caspian Sea (Iranian provinces of Gilan and Mazandaran) (Nasidze <i>et al</i>., 2006; Windfuhr, 2006).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The oldest area associated with the Kartvelians was northeastern Anatolia (where they probably pre-dated the Hittites), including the culturally important region of T’ao-Klarjeti (part of Turkey since 1921). During the first millennium B.C., the numerous Kartvelian tribes coalesced to form several kingdoms: Georgian-speaking Iberia in the east; Mingrelian-speaking Colchis (Æa) in the west, along the Black Sea coast; the kingdom of Tzanica (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Tzanikh/</span>, <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Qiannikh/</span>) on the coast between Trapezus and Apsarus; and two kingdoms in the mountains of the northwest: Suania (modern Svaneti; linguistically the most archaic branch of the phylum); and Scymnia (an extinct branch of Kartvelians, closely related to the Svans, who occupied the district later known as Takveri [mod. Lechkhumi]). The Lazic branch of the Kartvelians, who occupied extensive territories in Anatolia, were more savage and generally lacked central organization. This region (called Lazeti in Georgian), was divided into numerous small tribal kingdoms ruled by <i>sceptuchi</i> (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">skh=ptouxoi, </span>“scepter-holders,” cf. Strabo, <i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.13), as well as a number of tribes without a king. These polities would later coalesce to form the powerful kingdom of Lazica (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Lazikh/</span>).</div>
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The Georgians call themselves <i>kartvelebi</i>, their language <i>kartuli</i>, and their country <i>sakartvelo.</i> This root is said to derive from the name of their eponymous ancestor Kartlos, the son of Targamos, the son of Tarshish, the son of Japheth (Georgia (nation), 2007; Tsaroieva, 2008, p. 242). </div>
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There has been considerable discussion of the etymology of the name “Georgia,” by which the land of the Kartvelians is known in western Europe. Early visitors naively assumed that it refered to St. George, a “Christianized pagan spirit” who presided over a syncretistic cult associated with possession and human sacrifice, and forming part of a syncretistic “trinity,” along with Christ (the god of the dead) and Elias (the spirit of lightning) (Charachidzé, 1993). Others sought to derive the name<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"> from the Greek Γεωργία (</span>agriculture, farmland). However, it is sufficiently clear that the name “Georgia” derives from the Persian designation <i>Gurjist</i><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ā</i></span><i>n </i>(Turkish <i>Gürcistan</i>), which may be derived from the Persian <i>gurg</i> (“wolf”). The pre-Christian Kartvelians had a cult of the wolf, according to Persian sources (Georgia (nation), 2007). “The wolf constitutes a class of game in itself. A creature of the supreme god, not of the demon, and thus not belonging to savagery, the wolf is not thought of as an animal. Wolves form a society with the same structure as that of human beings, subject to the same rules and practices. Like men, they are given to feuding; this is why every ‘murder’ of a wolf must be expiated exactly like that of a human. The hunter wears mourning, as do all in his clan, and the animal is wept over as passionately as if it had been a man” (Charachidzé, 1993, p. 260). </div>
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The totemic significance of the wolf among the ancient Kartvelians may be seen in the fact that the Lydian king Myrsilus (d. 718 B.C.) took the surname Candaules (“the strangler of the Dog or Wolf”), which was “conferred on him for his wars against the ‘wolf-totem’ tribes of Eastern Anatolia” (Allen, 1971, p. 36n). One version of the legend of Amirani (the Kartvelian Prometheus, mid-2<sup>nd</sup> millennium B.C.) describes the hero as “Amirani with his knee of wolf” (M. Tsiklauri, <i>Amirani—Ancient Georgian legend</i>, 2006, quoted in Simonia, 2011, p. 492). The Iberian king Vakht’ang I (d. 522 A.D.) was known as <i>Gorgasali</i> (Pers. “wolf’s head”), apparently because he wore a hat or helmet crafted from the head of a wolf (Plontke-Lüning, 2007b). The ancient Kartvelians were notable for their unusual use of dogs as shock-troops in warfare (Charachidzé, 1993). The traditional dog-breeds of the Caucasus are extremely large and violent, and continue to pose a significant danger to foot-travelers.</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>The Svans</b></span></div>
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“Le prince Vomeki se retira chez les Soüanes, dans les lieux du mont Caucase qui sont inaccessibles <i>à</i> la cavalerie. . . . On dit que c’est l<i>à</i> qu’il a amass<i>é</i> une bonne partie de la vaisselle d’or et d’argent dont sa maison est remplie” (Chardin, 1711, vol. 1, p. 389).</div>
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“<i>Un grand d’Imirette nommé Kotzia le tira de peine. Il écrivit aux Soüanes, que le vice-roi de Géorgie vouloit absolument se défaire de Vomeki; qu’il leur donneroit de grandes récompenses s’ils le tuoient; mais qu’il alloit leur porter la guerre s’ils refusoient de lui donner cette satisfaction. Les Soüanes firent ce qu’on voulut. Ils tuèrent Vomeki, et envoyèrent sa tête au prince géorgien</i>” (Chardin, 1711, vol. 1, p. 390)</div>
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“<i>Il somma trois fois le dadian de se render; ce prince n’en fit rien. Sa forteresse étoit bien gardée par des Soüanes, que son visir y avoit envoyés, et qui en étoient plus maîtres que lui-même</i>” (Chardin, 1711, vol. 1, p. 406).</div>
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Our best insights into prehistoric Kartvelian culture are provided by the Svans, who are the most archaic branch of the Kartvelians. Their language is believed to have split from proto-Kartvelian during the 19<sup>th</sup> century B.C. (Klimov, 1994). This was probably occasioned by their withdrawal into the valleys of Svaneti; genetic testing confirms that the Svans have long been isolated from other peoples of the Caucasus, from whom they are widely divergent (Zerjal <i>et al</i>., 2002). Until the 15<sup>th</sup> century, the Svans occupied the province of Rach’a to the east, and their territories formerly extended westward as far as the Black Sea. Strabo (<i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.19) reports that the Soanes could field an army of 200,000 men. The Svan army was led into battle by the <i>lemi</i> (Georgian <i>lomi</i>, “lion”), a famous inflatable banner in the shape of a lion (Lang, 1966, p. 23); they also made use of the <i>doli</i>, a large skin-covered kettledrum, which was beaten in 5/4 time to accompany their warriors into battle (Burford, 2011).</div>
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Every traditional Svan house has a stone defensive tower attached. These were associated with blood-feuds between families, which could go on for generations. In upper Svaneti, the foundations of these towers have been dated to around the beginning of the Christian era. Indeed, the Mingrelian princely house of Dadiani traces itself back to Vardan Dadiani, <i>eristavi</i> of Svania during the first century A.D. (Buyers, 2010). </div>
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Although geographically isolated, the Svans have always played an important role in Georgian affairs. By controlling the Inguri valley, an important route linking the North Caucasian steppe to the Black Sea emporium of Sebastopolis (mod. Sukhumi), the Svans were able to exert political pressure on the Romans and Byzantines; the Scythians were able to enter the Caucasus by way of Suania (Braund, 1994) According to Menander Protector (6<sup>th</sup> century), the Suani, “dwelling on the peaks of the Caucasus, were thieves and plunderers, who committed appalling, impious acts. . . . the Lazi sent grain to the Suani to stop them coming to take it for themselves by force. The Suani offered their own produce in exchange, not tribute. This was more a matter of accommodation than domination” (Braund, 1994, p. 313). By allying themselves with the Sassanian Persians, the Suani succeeded in creating a major crisis for the Byzantine empire in 557 A.D. Since the 15<sup>th</sup> century (at least), many Svans have descended annually into the lowland regions of Georgia in search of work as migrant laborers. This was motivated by the need to obtain the two products that Svaneti could not produce: salt, and the wine necessary to administer the Christian sacraments (Topchishvili, 2006). Many Svans held important offices under the Georgian kings; during times of trouble, books, icons, and other treasures were often transported to Svaneti for safekeeping. As a result, almost every Svan household possesses valuable old books and artifacts which are seldom shown to outsiders (even Georgians). During an academic conference in October 2009, researchers at the National Centre of Manuscripts in Tbilisi reported on an iron-bound 11<sup>th</sup> century Bible which they had been allowed to photograph in Upper Svaneti (Chkhikvadze & Karanadze, 2009).</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>The Two Iberias</b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>There is much evidence to suggest that the Kartvelians are the remnant of a group of peoples that spread throughout much of the Mediterranean basin after the Last Glacial Maximum (<i>circa</i> 20,000 years ago). The Pelasgians (pre-Greek inhabitants of the Aegean, associated with non-Greek place-names in <i>–nthos</i> and <i>–ssos</i>), along with other pre-Greek peoples such as the Minoans, Trojans, Sicels, Ligurians, Corsicans, Sardinians, and Tartessians, may have been congeners of the Kartvelians. The Etruscans, too, are known to have migrated from Asia Minor to Italy, and there are numerous interesting parallels between Etruscan and Kartvelian cultural and religious ideas. </div>
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The existence of “two Iberias” at the two ends of the Mediterranean basin (one in the Caucasus, one on the Mediterranean coast of Spain) was generally assumed to imply an ancient kinship between these widely-separated peoples. Appian, writing in the 2<sup>nd</sup> century A.D., reports that “Some people think that the Iberians of Asia were the ancestors of the Iberians of Europe: others think they merely have the same name, as their customs and languages were not similar” (<i>Historia Romana</i> XII.xv.101). Strabo (1<sup>st</sup> century A.D.) offers an alternate explanation: “they call them Iberians, by the same name as the western Iberians, from the gold mines in both countries” (<i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.19).<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></div>
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A chapter entitled<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;"> ’</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Ibhri/ai</span><span style="font: 10.0px SLGreek;"> </span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">du/o</span> (“The Two Iberias”) from the <i>Ethnica</i> of Stephanus of Byzantium (6<sup>th</sup> century) is preserved as chapter 23 of the <i>De administrando imperio</i> of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus (905-959). This text is based on a similar assumption.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></div>
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However, according to Braund (1994), “the reason for the existence of two Iberias is to be sought rather in their geographical locations, each at the edge of Ocean. As there were Colchians in Libya and Libystice in Colchis, to north and south, so there was an Iberia at the extreme west and another Iberia at the extreme east. . . . The encircling river of Ocean was both the beginning and the end not only geographically but also astronomically” (p. 20).</div>
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The Georgian scholar Giorgi Mtats’mindeli (d. 1065) noted the desire of the Georgian nobility in his day to visit these “Georgians of the West” (Zatiashvili, 2008).</div>
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When the Huguenot merchant Jean Chardin visited the court of Vakht’ang V of Kartli in 1673, the king made reference to this ancient belief:</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><i>Nous nous retirâmes à minuit, comme j’ai dit, après avoir pris congé du prince, avec une grande révérence. Il me demanda, avant que de me laisser aller, comment se portoit le roi d’Espagne son parent, et but à sa santé dans une tasse garnie de pierreries. Il voulut que les capucins et moi bussions la même santé dans cette riche coupe. Je ne sais s’il fit cela par faste, ou pour honorer le préfet, qu’il savoit être sujet de S. M. catholique. Le 17, faisant réflexion sur cette qualité de parent du roi d’Espagne, que le prince s’étoit donnée, et trouvant que cela ne revenoit pas mal, à ce que disent plusieurs auteurs, je demandai aux capucins, comment le prince entendoit cette parenté? Ils me répondirent que Clément VIII ayant traité Taymuras, en des lettres qu’il lui écrivoit, de </i></div>
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<i>parent de Philippe II, et les Ibériens et les Espagnols de frères, Taymuras depuis, et ses successeurs après lui, s’étoient entêtés de cette imaginaire parenté.</i> (Chardin, 1711, vol. 2, pp. 123-124)</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The extant western Iberian inscriptions are not well understood, but the language may well be connected to Aquitanian (ancestral to modern Basque), and there are also numerous cultural and religious parallels between the Basques and the Kartvelians. There is evidence to suggest that some of these peoples were involved in trade and settlement further north along the Atlantic seaboard, especially in the British Isles; the ancient Picts appear to have been genetically and perhaps linguistically related (Zatiashvili, 2008).<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Linguistic comparisons between Etruscan and Kartvelian, and between Basque and Kartvelian, are promising though (so far) inconclusive. Nevertheless, the numerous cultural and religious parallels among the Kartvelians, the Etruscans, and the Basques are extremely suggestive and may well go back to a Neolithic ethno-linguistic spread at such a great time-depth that the linguistic affinity of its members is no longer plainly apparent.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>While some scholars (e.g. Hans Vogt and the Basque specialists Luis Michelena and Larry Trask) have been dismissive of this possibility, many others (e.g. René Lafon, Natela Sturua, and most recently Jan Braun) have taken it seriously (Trask, 1997). A list of several hundred putative cognates and grammatical correspondences can be readily produced. In light of the multiplicity of tenuous connections, both linguistic and non-linguistic, between the two regions, it would probably be fruitful to proceed on the hypothesis that some such relationship exists.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>In any case, the idea of the Kartvelians being an older race, from which the Greeks derived many of their cultural institutions and beliefs, has not been lost on the Georgians, and formed the basis of the ultra-nationalist propaganda of Zviad Gamsakhurdia (1939-1993), the Republic’s first president (Gamsakhurdia, 1990).</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>The Amazons</b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>One of the most interesting cultural features of the Caucasus region was the existence of female warriors. This phenomenon goes back to prehistoric times and was principally associated with the peoples of the North Caucasus and with the various Scythian and Sarmatian tribes who had settled along the north slope of the Caucasus range. </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The archaic Athenians are supposed to have fought several wars with the Amazons, who dwelt in the region of Thermodon, on the north coast of Anatolia (Arrian, <i>Periplus</i> 15.3). Apollonius Rhodius speaks of “the three cities of the Amazons” (<i>Argonautica</i> II.373-74), and states elsewhere that they were divided into three tribes: the Themiscyreians (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Qemisku/reiai</span>), the Lycastians (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Luka/stiai</span>), and the Chadesians (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Xadh/siai</span> ) (II.995-1000). These stories probably preserve memories of prehistoric conflicts with the matriarchal Northwest Caucasians. </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Female warriors were prominent in ancient Daghestan as well, where archaeological finds include “a seventh-century B.C. figure of a naked female charioteer, holding the reins . . . and later naked figures of a woman with crown and pronounced vagina, sitting across a horse, and another with a crown and wearing neck, waist and arm rings, holding two drinking-horns” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 40). These drinking-horns were of great cultural significance, as we shall see.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>According to Strabo (<i>Geographica</i> XI.v.1), the Amazons “have two special months in the spring in which they go up into the neighbouring mountain which separates them and the Gargarians. The Gargarians also, in accordance with an ancient custom, go up thither to offer sacrifice with the Amazons and also to have intercourse with them for the sake of begetting children, doing this in secrecy and darkness, any Gargarian at random with any Amazon; and after making them pregnant they send them away; and the females that are born are retained by the Amazons themselves, but the males are taken to the Gargarians to be brought up.” These Gargarians (Gargarenses) are clearly to be identified with the Vainakh peoples (cf. Chechen <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">гергара, “related”). As late as the 18</span><sup>th</sup> century, the Ingush were known as “Ghlighwis” (Allen, 1971, p. 204).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Concerning the Sarmatians, Hippocrates writes that “their women, so long as they are virgins, ride, shoot, throw the javelin while mounted, and fight with their enemies. They do not lay aside their virginity until they have killed three of their enemies, and they do not marry before they have performed the traditional sacred rites” (<i>De aëre, aquis et locis</i>, xvii). Archaeological investigation of Sarmatian burial-mounds in the Ukraine reveals that approximately 20% of the burials were of “females dressed for battle as if they were men” (Anthony, 2007, p. 329). This unusual phenomenon led some classical authors (e.g. Pseudo-Scylax, <i>Periplus Maris Interni</i> 70) to the mistaken belief that the Sarmatians were ruled by women. It is uncertain whether these cultural practices arose in the North Caucasus and were adopted by the Scythians, or whether they originated among the Scythians. Herodotus (<i>Historiae</i> IV.110.1) calls them <span style="font: 12.0px Times;">ἀνδροκτόνοι</span> (“killers of men”), a translation of the Scythian term <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">OiÍo/rpata</span><span style="font: 12.0px Times;"> (</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">oiÍo/r</span><span style="font: 12.0px Times;">, “man” + </span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">pata/</span><span style="font: 12.0px Times;"> “to slay”).</span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>It was widely believed that the Sarmatians of the Black Sea steppe were the product of a union between the Scythians and the Amazons. Pliny identifies one tribe as “the Matriarchal Sauromatae, the husbands of the Amazons” (<i>Sauromatae Gynaecocratumenoe, Amazonum conubia</i>; <i>Naturalis historia</i> VI.vii.19). [+ other classical reference to this]</div>
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Classical writers place the Amazons in various locations. Several passages in Aeschylus (<i>Prometheus vinctus</i> 415, 720) appear to suggest that they dwelt in the vicinity of the <i>palus Maeotis</i> (Sea of Azov) before crossing the Black Sea and settling at Themiscyra on the Thermodon river. Strabo (<i>Geographica</i> XI.v.1) places them far to the east, “in the mountains above Albania.” Ammianus Marcellinus, writing in the 4<sup>th</sup> century A.D., places them far to the north, with territories extending “to the Caspian Sea and . . . about the Tanaïs, which rises among the crags of Caucasus, flows in a course with many windings, and after separating Europe from Asia vanishes in the standing pools of the Maeotis” (<i>Res gestae</i> XXII.8.27). Appian, writing of Pompey’s invasion of Iberia (65 B.C.) expresses some skepticism about the whole matter: “Among the hostages and prisoners many women were found, who had suffered wounds no less than the men. These were supposed to be Amazons, but whether the Amazons are a neighbouring nation, who were called to their aid at that time, or whether any warlike women are called Amazons by the barbarians there, is not known” (<i>Historia Romana</i> XII.xv.103). Plutarch also discusses this matter. In the battle which Pompey fought with the Caucasian Albanians on the river Abas, “it is said that there were also Amazons fighting on the side of the Barbarians, and that they came down from the mountains about the river Thermodon. For when the Romans were despoiling the Barbarians after the battle, they came upon Amazonian shields and buskins; but no body of a woman was seen. The Amazons inhabit the parts of the Caucasus mountains that reach down to the Hyrcanian [i.e. Caspian] Sea, and they do not border on the Albani, but Gelae and Leges dwell between. With these peoples, who meet them by the river Thermodon, they consort for two months every year; then they go away and live by themselves” (<i>Vita Pompeii</i> xxxv.2). </div>
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The last wife of Mithridates VI of Pontus (120-63 B.C.) was a woman from the Caucasus named Hypsicratea. Defeated by Pompey at Dasteira on the upper Euphrates (66 B.C.), Mithridates “was left with three companions. One of these was Hypsicrateia, a concubine, who always displayed a right manly spirit and extravagant daring (for which reason the king was wont to call her Hypsicrates), and at this time, mounted and accoutred like a Persian, she was neither exhausted by the long journeys, nor did she weary of caring for the king’s person and for his horse, until they came to a place called Sinora [Sinorex], which was full of the king’s money and treasures.” (Plutarch, <i>Vita Pompeii</i> xxxii.7-8). Hypsicratea subsequently accompanied Mithridates on his daring winter crossing of the Caucasus range. According to Valerius Maximus, “Queen Hypsicratea also loved her husband Mithridates with the greatest affection, for whose sake she considered it a pleasure to exchange her remarkable beauty for a masculine style; for she cut her hair and accustomed herself to a horse and arms, so that she might thus more easily participate in his pursuits and perils. Indeed, when he was defeated by Cn. Pompey, she followed him through the most savage peoples, indefatiguable alike in soul and body.” (<i>Facta et dicta memorabilia </i>IV.6.2). </div>
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The peoples of Daghestan and the North Caucasus were typically organized into small village or tribal communities, so that in emergencies every able-bodied person had to fight for the community’s survival. In the course of the 19<sup>th</sup>-century Russian subjugation of Chechnya and Daghestan, women fought to defend mountain villages alongside the men, even going so far as to wield the bodies of children killed by artillery fire as clubs, or to hurl themselves over the cliffs, dragging Russian soldiers down with them. </div>
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Xenophon (400 B.C.) describes a similar practice among the Kartvelian Taochi: “Then there came a dreadful spectacle: the women threw their little children down from the rocks and then threw themselves down after them, and the men did likewise. In the midst of this scene Aeneas of Stymphalus, a captain, catching sight of a man, who was wearing a fine robe, running to cast himself down, seized hold of him in order to stop him; but the man dragged Aeneas along after him, and both went flying down the cliffs and were killed. In this stronghold only a very few human beings were captured, but they secured cattle and asses in large numbers and sheep” (<i>Anabasis</i> IV.vii.13-14).</div>
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The Theatine missionary Arcangelo Lamberti, who lived in Mingrelia from 1631 to 1649, records the following fascinating incident in his <i>Relazione della Colchide oggi detta Mengrellia, nella quale si tratta dell’Origine, Costumi, e cose naturali di quei Paesi</i> (1652): “During the time I was staying in Mingrelia, the prince of that country received intimation that numerous bands of warriors, in full armour, and well provided with all the materiel of war, had issued from the interior of the Caucasus, and were carrying fire and sword into the territories of the Muscovites, and also into the mountainous districts of the Svanetti (Suoni), and the Karatscholi (Karatchia), bordering upon his own territories. After a long and desperate struggle with the mountaineers, these adventurers were repulsed, when the greater number of the slain were discovered to be women, in the prime of life. Specimens of the armour of these Amazons having been presented to the Dadian, were found on examination to be unusually splendid, being composed of helmets, cuirasses, cuises, and gauntlets, made of the finest polished steel, and so ingeniously contrived as to be perfectly flexible to every part of the body. The cuirass, which reached to the waist, was lined with bright scarlet woollen stuff.” (trans. Spencer, 1838, vol. 1, pp. 343-344)</div>
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During the Abkhaz-Georgian conflict of 1992-93, the Abkhaz were assisted by hundreds of fighters from other parts of the North Caucasus, including many female soldiers, several of whom can be seen in an amateur video recording the fall of Sukhumi to the Abkhaz on 27 September 1993 (Abkhaz victory clip, 1993).</div>
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Throughout the North Caucasus, social life was governed by elaborate rules, including shunning between a bride and her in-laws (Chlaidze, 2003, pp. 194-97). In Daghestan, lack of social communication between the sexes “even gave rise to secret languages for women in Koubachi village and others” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 48). There was even a “women’s language” that was formerly spoken throughout the entire North Caucasus. This language is reported to have been monosyllabic and tonal (Colarusso, 1997). This extremely curious phenomenon suggests the survival of submerged linguistic elements from the remote past.</div>
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It must be understood that the phenomenon of female warriors was characteristic of the North Caucasus but not of the Kartvelians, among whom female participation in warfare much more limited. </div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>Gender reversal</b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>There can be no doubt that the Greek legends of the Amazons had a factual basis. These female warriors of the Caucasus are connected to a late-prehistoric “transition from a matriarchate to patriarchy” among the Northwest Caucasian peoples (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 139). The Abkhaz pantheon had a higher proportion of goddesses in comparison to that of the Circassians to the north, for whom female deities had already lost much of their significance. A very interesting illustration of this is seen in the fact that the Abkhaz <i>acaaju</i>, a female soothsayer, was always addressed as a male, owing to her possession by a male spirit (Johansons, 1972).<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></div>
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This transition is probably connected to a similar phenomenon among the Kartvelians, resulting in a counterintuitive gender-reversal in the words for “father” (Georgian <i>mama</i>) and “mother” (Georgian <i>deda</i>), and in the words for “sun” (Georgian <i>mze</i> [feminine], Abkhaz <i>amra</i> [masculine]) and “moon” (Georgian <i>mtvare</i> [masculine], Abkhaz <i>amza</i> [feminine]). The Georgian word for the sun (<i>mze</i>) thus derives from the same root as the Abkhaz word for the moon (<i>amza</i>). It has been suggested that these lexical curiosities may stem from a late-prehistoric “social revolution” among the Kartvelians: “One of the features that makes the Georgian language unique in that it has the odd distinction of reversing the almost universal sounds for mother and father, so that <i>mama</i> is father and <i>deda</i> is mother, which could well indicate that the tribal peoples who inhabited the region were at one point in time matriarchal, worshiping the sun, not the moon, as the supreme female deity and that they passed on their lines of descent through the mothers’ rather than through the fathers’ side” (Berman, 2008b, p. 10). Classical sources contain a few hints of this; concerning the Kartvelian Tibareni, Apollonius Rhodius (3<sup>rd</sup> century B.C.) relates that “Here when wives bring forth children to their husbands, the men lie in bed and groan with their heads close bound; but the women tend them with food, and prepare child-birth baths for them” (<i>Argonautica</i> II.1011-14). </div>
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• “il faut observer que le parrain d’un enfant est tenu le parent de sa mère, au degree de frère ou de sœur, tellement qu’à toute heure ou en tout temps il peut entrer par-tout chez elle, comme dans sa propre maison” (Zampi, 1711, p. 265). = matril.</div>
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• “Il y a fort peu de Mingréliens qui sachent lire et écrire. Les femmes en savent beaucoup davantage; il y en a même quelques-unes qui se mêlent de faire les docteurs, et de parler de ce qui les passe: ce qui leur fait dire mille choses mal à propos” (Zampi, 1711, p. 290).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>In pre-Christian times, the cult of the moon-god Zadeni flourished alongside that of Armazi at Mtskheta. The Georgians associated the horns of the crescent moon with the horns of a bull; for this reason, the horns of male animals are preserved and displayed as offerings in sanctuaries throughout Georgia. Giuseppe Maria Zampi, a Theatine missionary writing in the 17<sup>th</sup> century, reports that “<i>Ils offrent aux images, qui sont pendues dans leurs églises, des bois de cerf, des mâchoires de sanglier, des plumes de faisan, des arcs et des carquois, afin qu’elles leur soient favorables à la chasse</i>” (1711, p. 221).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Lamberti, who served as Theatine prefect of Mingrelia from 1633-1649, gives an account of the famous sacrifice of the bull at Ilori: “<i>la plus grande partie, avec les cornes, en appartient au prince regnant; il ordonne de parer les cornes avec de l’or et des pierres précieuses et, au grandes fêtes, il boit dedans en l’honneur de St Georges. Une grande partie en appartient également au roi d’Imérethie. Bien qu’à ce moment le prince fût en hostilité et en guerre avec le roi, il lui envouya quand même sa part avec un homme special.</i>” (trans. Taka<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">ï</span>shvili, 1998, p. 178) Such drinking-horns are a fixture of traditional Georgian culture and clearly have ancient lunar associations.</div>
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In G<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ī</span>l<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span>n, a province of Iran along the south coast of the Caspian Sea which appears to have been inhabited by Kartvelian speakers in late prehistoric times (Grove, 2011), “the trunk of an old, large ash-tree in front of this shrine [of <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Ā</span>q<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span> Sayyed Ebr<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span>h<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ī</span>m b. al-M<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ū</span>s<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span> al-K<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span>ẓem, also known as Em<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span>mz<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span>da T<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ū</span>r<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span>r, on the top of the T<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ū</span>r<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span>r Mountain, at about 4 miles southeast of Kel<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ī</span>šem in the R<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ū</span>db<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span>r district] has a few stag horns nailed onto it, which has gradually been covered by tree barks in such a way that the horns look like natural branches of the tree. This is an indication of the esteem in which the stag, locally called <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ganj-e gāv</i></span>, is held by the local population” (Sotoudeh, 2010, ¶11). </div>
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Similar offerings are found at cult sites throughout Daghestan and Ossetia. According to Strabo (<i>Geographica</i>, XI.iv.7), the god Zadeni (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Selh/nh</span>) was also cultivated by the Albanians, and took precedence over their Sun-god.</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>The importance of trees</b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The shores of the Black Sea produced timber in luxuriant abundance. “The large forests along the coast of northern Asia Minor are in fact among the few forest regions of the Greco-Roman world which have ‘survived’ (or possibly recovered) relatively intact into modern times” (Hannestad, 2007, p. 86). Mithridates of Pontus (1<sup>st</sup> century B.C.) is reported to have “offered sacrifice to Zeus Stratius on a lofty pile of wood on a high hill, according to the fashion of his country . . . The height of the flame is such that it can be seen at a distance of 1000 stades from the sea, and they say that nobody can come near it for several days on account of the heat” (Appian, <i>Historia Romana</i> XII.ix.66). </div>
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In classical times, the Black Sea region was an important source of timber and other ship-building materials. Arrian reports that “there is a great abundance [of timber] in the Euxine” (<i>Periplus</i> 5.2).<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span> According to Xenophon, “There is a great deal of timber of various sorts, but an especially large amount of fine ship timber, on the very shore of the sea” (<i>Anabasis</i> VI.4.4). According to Strabo, the Caucasus “is well wooded with all kinds of timber, and especially the kind suitable for ship-building,” while Colchis “not only produces quantities of timber but also brings it down on rivers. And the people make linen in quantities, and hemp, wax, and pitch” (<i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.15, 17). The kings of the region, such as Mithridates of Pontus and Prusias of Bithynia, were able to make splendid gifts of timber to other Hellenistic monarchs (Polybius, <i>Historiae</i> V.lxxxviii.2). </div>
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Classical accounts suggest that the ancient Kartvelians had an almost symbiotic relationship with the forests. When Pompey pursued Mithridates into Iberia in 65 B.C., “Oroezes, king of the Albanians, and Artoces, king of the Iberians, placed 70,000 men in ambush for him at the river Cyrtus . . . Pompey, discovering the ambush, bridged the river and drove the barbarians into a thick wood. These people are skilful forest-fighters, taking cover and attacking without shewing themselves. So Pompey surrounded the wood with his army, set it on fire, and pursued the fugitives when they ran out, until they all surrendered and brought him hostages and presents. Pompey was afterwards awarded one of his triumphs at Rome for these exploits” (Appian, <i>Historia Romana</i> XII.xv.103).<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Strabo (<i>Geographica</i> XII.iii.18) descibes the Mossynoeci, “who attack travelers, leaping down from the floors of their dwellings among the trees.” </div>
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Xenophon describes an encounter between the Greeks and the Macrones: “this stream was fringed with trees, not large ones, but of thick growth, and when the Greeks came up, they began felling them in their haste to get out of the place as speedily as possible” (IV.viii.3).</div>
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The Lazi, who dwelt along the Black Sea coast, are described as “clever wood-workers and boat-builders, lumbermen, fishermen and pirates” (Allen, 1971, p. 55). Vitruvius relates that “in Pontus among the nation of the Colchi, because of their rich forests, two whole trees are laid flat, right and left, on the ground, a space being left between them as wide as the lengths of the trees allow. On the furthest parts of them, two others are placed transversely, and these four trees enclose in the middle the space for the dwelling. Then, laying upon them alternate beams from the four sides, they join up the angles. And so constructing the walls with trees, they raise up towers rising perpendicular from the lowest parts. The gaps which are left by the thickness of the timber they block up with splinters and clay. Further, they raise the roofs by cutting off the cross-beams at the end and gradually narrowing them. And so, from the four sides they raise over the middle a pyramid on high. This they cover with leafage and clay, and barbarian fashion, construct the coved roofs of their towers” (<i>De architectura</i> II.i.4). </div>
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The northern Anatolian coast was known in Turkish as <i>A</i><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ğ</i></span><i>açdeniz</i> (“sea of trees”) (Hannestad, 2007). The Turkish <i>Book of Dede Korkut</i> (14<sup>th</sup> century) describes the trackless forests extending eastward from Trebizond into the Caucasus: “Son, in the place where you would go, twisted and tortuous will the roads be; swamps there will be, where the horseman will sink and never emerge; forests there will be, where the red serpent can find no path; fortresses there will be, that rub shoulders with the sky” (ed. Lewis, 1974, p. 119).</div>
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During the 19<sup>th</sup> century, the forests of Chechnya presented a formidable defense against Russian encroachment. “As long as the forest stood the Tchetchens were unconquerable. The Russians made no permanent impression on them save when and where they cut the beech trees down; and it is literally the fact that they were beaten in the long run not by the sword but by the axe” (Baddeley, 1908/1969, p. xxxv).</div>
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“Perhaps the greatest symbol of Shamil’s waning power in the Caucasus was the Argoun Forest. For many years, Russians would simply avoid it. So tall and thick were its trees that it was considered impregnable. Yet, in 1858, after a two-pronged push against Chechen positions, the forest was finally taken. This forward movement was achieved not through battle and bloodshed, but by the painstaking clearing of the trees” (Griffin, 2003, p. 162).</div>
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“Veliamenov had faced trees so large and swarming with the enemy that he had compared each trunk to a fort. . . . Perhaps the most powerful image was that which greeted the Karbada [<i>sic</i>] regiment on the third day of the Biscuit Expedition: the barricades that stood before them, the fallen beech trees reinforced by the naked and mutilated corpses of their fellow Russian soldiers. These hybrid bulwarks of flesh and wood stand as a wretched symbol of Caucasian warfare. Shamil had long understood that the countryside provided more pragmatic assistance than Allah. Any man who felled a tree was first penalized an ox. At the second offense he would be punished with death, the same penalty as either cowardice or treachery, underlining the importance of the land. The body would hang in the centre of the man’s <i>aoul</i> for at least one week.” (Griffin, 2003, pp. 162-63) </div>
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Throughout the Caucasus even in modern times, one frequently sees “prayer trees” to which numerous passers-by have tied strings, ribbons, or bits of trash. Each of these offerings is associated with a “wish” addressed to the spirit dwelling in the tree. Such trees are frequently seen in the vicinity of churches and monasteries (though the Church officially discourages this practice); others appear here and there for no apparent reason. </div>
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Famous trees are revered and pointed out to visitors. For example, a tree at Tskhinvali (South Ossetia) marks the spot where Erek’le II stopped to rest on his way to Russia to sign the Treaty of Georgievsk (1783) (Plunkett & Masters, 2004, p. 77). The town of Zaqatala, Azerbaijan, is distinguished by the presence of two 700-year-old plane trees (p. 234).</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>Ancient Near East</b></span></div>
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The “Table of Nations” (Genesis 10) lists the seven sons of Japheth: Gomer, Magog, Madai, Javan, Tubal, Meshech, and Tiras. Of these, the last three appear to be proto-Kartvelian or closely-related nations. Tubal and Meshech are closely associated: Ezekiel speaks of “Gog, the chief prince of Meshech and Tubal” (38:2, 38:3, 39:1) and makes two further references to them: “Javan, Tubal, and Meshech, they were thy merchants: they traded the persons of men and vessels of brass in thy market” (Ezek. 27:13); “There is Meshech, Tubal, and all her multitude: her graves are round about him: all of them uncircumcised, slain by the sword, though they caused their terror in the land of the living” (Ezek. 32:26). </div>
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This accords well with what is known of these peoples from other Ancient Near Eastern sources. Meshech is called Mushki and Mushkaya in Assyrian documents of Tiglath-Pileser I (1117-1080 B.C.) and Assurnasirpal II (883-859 B.C.), where they are associated with eastern Anatolia. They later inhabited the region of Meskheti in southwestern Georgia, and are known as the Moschi (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Mo/sxoi, Mesxh=noi</span>) in classical sources. </div>
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Tubal is often identified with the neo-Hittite kingdom of Tabal, which was established along the <i>Mare Issicum</i> (mod. Gulf of Iskendrun) in south-central Anatolia (9<sup>th</sup>-8<sup>th</sup> centuries B.C.). Although the royal inscriptions of the kings of Tabal were written in the Luwian language, the nation of Tabal was understood to be of Kartvelian stock, having migrated southward from the Black Sea coast of Anatolia. This nation was known to classical writers as the Tibareni (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Tibarhnoi/</span>). Toumanoff (1963) suggests a possible etymological connection between Tubal and the “antediluvian” pre-Sumerian city of Bad-tibira (p. 57n).</div>
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Tiras, the youngest of the sons of Japheth, was associated with Asia Minor and the region extending eastward to the south shore of the Caspian Sea (Baker, 1992d). This nation appears in Egyptian records as Teresh (or Tursha), one of the Sea Peoples whose attempted invasion of Egypt was repulsed in the 8<sup>th</sup> year of Ramesses III (1178 B.C.). This nation appears in classical texts as the Tyrseni (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Turshnoi/</span>) or Tyrrheni (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">TurÍrÓhnoi/</span>), the ancestors of the Etruscans. They were driven out of Asia Minor by the Indo-European Phrygians before 1100 B.C. and migrated westward, reaching Sicily and Italy by the 8<sup>th</sup> century B.C.</div>
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As to the western Iberians, Genesis 10:4 lists Tarshish among the sons of Javan (along with Elishah, Kittim, and Dodanim). Tarshish is mentioned more than 30 times in the Old Testament, where it is described as a source of precious metals, precious stones, and other exotic merchandise transported by Phoenician vessels. According to Greek sources, Tartessus (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Tarthsso/v</span>, i.e. Tarshish) was founded in 1100 B.C. by refugees from Troy. The Tartessians exploited mineral deposits in Sardinia, where they established a colony at Nora. This is confirmed by the Phoenician Nora Inscription (<i>circa</i> 800 B.C.). The importance of Tarshish as a source of metals is noted by Strabo (<i>Geographica</i> III.ii.11), by Diodorus Siculus (<i>Bibliotheca historica</i> v.35), and by Pliny (<i>Naturalis historia</i> iii.4, iii.157, xxxiii.31). The name “Tarshish” may in fact be derived from the Akkadian <i>rashasu</i> (“to be smelted”) (Culican, 1991, p. 519). There is some evidence to suggest that the Tartessians were involved in the exploitation of mineral deposits in the British Isles as well (Zatiashvili, 2008). </div>
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According to Strabo, the Turdetanians (Tartessians) “are ranked as the wisest of the Iberians; and they make use of an alphabet, and possess records of their ancient history, poems, and laws written in verse that are six thousand years old, as they assert” (<i>Geographica</i> III.i.6). This intriguing statement raises the possibility that the mysterious Voynich Manuscript (which appears to have originated in Spain) may in fact preserve an ancient Iberian text.</div>
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The Kartvelian tribes of the Anatolian coast were associated with the early development of ferrous metallurgy. The Chalybes (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Xa/lubev, Xa/luboi, Xa/ldoi, Xaldai=oi</span>) were a Kartvelian tribe living in the vicinity of the Halys river, to which their name appears to be connected. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, it was “the Chalybes, by whom iron was first mined and worked” (<i>Res gestae</i> XXII.8.21). The Greek word<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;"> </span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">xa/luy </span>(“tempered steel”) is derived from their name. The Chalybes were not a numerous people, but enjoyed a great reputation in antiquity for their knowledge of metallurgical secrets: “These people were few in number and subject to the Mossynoeci, and most of them gained their livelihood from working in iron” (Xenophon, <i>Anabasis </i>V.v.1). It is likely that the Chalybes are to be identified with the Halizones (<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">‘</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Alizw=nev</span>), described by Homer (<i>Iliad</i> II.856-57) as a people “from afar, from Alybe, where the birthplace of silver is” (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">thlo/qen eÍc ÍAlu/bhv,</span><span style="font: 12.0px 'Lucida Grande';"> </span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">o¸qen</span><span style="font: 12.0px 'Lucida Grande';"> </span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">aÍrgu/rou eÍsti\ gene/qlh</span>). Earlier still, they are mentioned in Hittite sources referring to Khaly-wa (“the land of Halys”). According to Strabo, the territory of the Chalybes “has the mines, only iron-mines at the present time, though in earlier times it also had silver-mines. Upon the whole, the seaboard in this region is extremely narrow, for the mountains, full of mines and forests, are situated directly above it, and not much of it is tilled” (<i>Geographica</i> XII.iii.18-19). It is interesting to compare Herodotus’ description of the Argippaei, an ancient tribe associated with the Altai region, the terminus of a prehistoric trade-route frequented by the Kartvelians: “No one harms these people, for they are looked upon as sacred—they do not even possess any warlike weapons. When their neighbors fall out, they make up the quarrel; and when one flies to them for refuge, he is safe from all hurt.” (<i>Persian Wars </i>iv.23) The “sacred” Argippaei may have been early practitioners of metallurgy and the custodians of metallurgical secrets: “It has been suggested that the sacred immunity of the Argippaei may be compared with that enjoyed by tribes of African blacksmiths: the Argippaei may have been skilled miners, foundrymen and, above all, goldsmiths who worked for all the neighbouring peoples” (Sulimirski, 1970, p. 70).</div>
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This situation is reflected in Ezekiel 27:13, where Javan (Greeks), along with Tubal and Meshech (Kartvelians) are described as traders in slaves and brass vessels. </div>
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Another Kartvelian tribe, the Daiaeni, figures prominently in Assyrian records. Tiglath-Pilesar I twice crossed the Taurus range (<i>circa</i> 1114 B.C., <i>circa</i> 1112 B.C.) to combat the 23 kings of the Nairi, one of whom was Asia (Sieni), king of the Daiaeni. Several centuries, later, Shalmaneser III (859-824 B.C.) laid waste to the lands of the Daiaeni and sacked the Urartian royal city of Arzaškun as well (Ananias of Širak, 1992, p. 205n).</div>
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Urartian records refer to these people as Diaueḫe (Diau-ḫe), which appears to be “a patronymic or dynastic name meaning ‘son of Diau,’ the presumed founder of the dynasty that ruled the people-state” (Ananias of Širak, 1992, p. 206n). The Daiaeni had migrated further north by this time, occupying territories between the Araxes river and Lake Çildir, with their capital at Sasilu (Arsis). King Utupursi of the Daiaeni opposed the Urartian kings Menua (<i>circa</i> 810-<i>circa</i> 780 B.C.) and Argisti (<i>circa</i> 780-<i>circa</i> 756 B.C.) (Ananias of Širak, 1992). </div>
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Meanwhile (<i>circa</i> 1250 B.C.), the kingdom of Æa (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">AiÂa</span>; later known as Colchis) was established in the basin of the Phasis river. This was the most culturally advanced branch of the Kartvelians. It was widely believed among the Greeks that the Colchi were descended from Egyptians who had colonized the region in the time of Sesostris (Herodotus, <i>Historiae</i> II.103-105). The Colchi practiced circumcision, a practice which was subsequently adopted by the neighboring Macrones. The kingdom of Aea was associated with the Argonautic expedition, the quest for the Golden Fleece, and the tragic marriage of Jason and Medea. These associations made Colchis the special domain of sorcery and poisons in the Greek imagination.</div>
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The kingdom of Æa collapsed (<i>circa</i> 700 B.C.) as a result of the Cimmerian invasion (Bredow, 2007a), and during the 7<sup>th</sup> century B.C. the hegemony of Western Georgia passed to the Kashkai. The Kashkai were a branch of the Circassians (Northwest Caucasians) who had participated in the destruction of the Hittite state (<i>circa</i> 1200 B.C.) and then expanded south-eastwards, where they came into conflict with the Assyrians and were repulsed. Some of the Kashkai subsequently penetrated into the western Caucasus, where they supplanted the ruling dynasty of Æa and assimilated with the Kartvelians. This successor-state became known as Qulḫa to the Urartians, and as Colchis to the Greeks (Toumanoff, 1963). Its capital city (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">AiÂa</span>; mod. Kutaisi) was known as <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Ko/ta</span><span style="font: 12.0px Arial;">ï</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">v</span> from at least as early as the 6<sup>th</sup> century A.D. (Agathias, <i>Historiae</i> II.19). </div>
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Many of the Kartvelian tribes, including the Moschi, Tibareni, Macrones, Mosynoeci, and Mares, eventually came under Persian suzerainty, and Zoroastrianism became the dominant religion of the South Caucasus. The Phasis river marked the northwestern border of the Persian empire (Bredow, 2007b). </div>
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Xenophon’s <i>Anabasis</i> includes an interesting account of the Kartvelians, since the Greeks had to fight their way through them in order to reach the Black Sea. Here is Xenophon’s account of the Mosynoeci, one of the Kartvelian tribes he encountered in 400 B.C.:</div>
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“The greater part of these places were of the following description: The towns were eighty stadia distant from one another, some more, and some less; but the inhabitants could hear one another shouting from one town to the next, such heights and valleys there were in the country. And when the Greeks, as they proceeded, were among the friendly Mossynoecians, they would exhibit to them fattened children of the wealthy inhabitants, who had been nourished on boiled nuts and were soft and white to an extraordinary degree, and pretty nearly equal in length and breadth, with their backs adorned with many colours and their fore parts all tattooed with flower patterns. These Mossynoecians wanted also to have intercourse openly with the women who accompanied the Greeks, for that was their own fashion. And all of them were white, the men and the women alike. They were set down by the Greeks who served through the expedition, as the most uncivilized people whose country they traversed, the furthest removed from Greek customs. For they habitually did in public the things that other people would do only in private, and when they were alone they would behave just as if they were in the company of others, talking to themselves, laughing at themselves, and dancing in whatever spot they chanced to be, as though they were giving an exhibition to others.” (<i>Anabasis </i>V.iv.31-34)</div>
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With the collapse of the Persian empire, the kingdom of Iberia developed great political influence under king Pharnabazes (P’arnavaz, 299-234 B.C.), but came under strong Hellenistic cultural influence, as reflected in the grave-goods recovered from numerous aristocratic burials dated to this period (Javakhishvili & Abramishvili, 1986). “Excavations attest to a developed metropolitan culture in the Hellenistic, and above all in the Roman period; during the latter a distinctive Romanization of the until then Iranian-influenced upper class can be determined” (Plontke-Lüning, 2007b, p. 695). Meanwhile, after the death of Alexander the Great, a local ruler named Kuji established a new kingdom of Colchis, which he ruled as a vassal of P’arnavaz of Iberia. “This western Georgian state was federated to Kartli-Iberia, and its kings ruled through <i>skeptukhi</i> (royal governors) who received a staff from the king” (Suny, 1994, p. 13). </div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>Classical antiquity: Æëtes and the Greeks</b></span></div>
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Though isolated at the extreme eastward edge of the Mediterranean basin, the Kartvelians (especially the Colchians) exercised a profound and lasting influence on the culture and imagination of the Greeks. </div>
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A number of important Greek myths are set in the region of the Black Sea and the Caucasus:</div>
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1. The Titan Prometheus, who stole fire from the gods and gave it to mortals, was punished by being chained to a rock in the heights of the Caucasus, where he was tormented by an eagle which returned each day to eat his liver. This story closely parallels the Georgian myth of Amirani, the son of Dali (goddess of the hunt). Amirani stole the secrets of metallurgy from the gods and like Prometheus, was punished by being chained to a mountain, where an eagle attacked him each day and devoured his liver. This gave rise to the Kartvelian cultic practice of finding and destroying eagles’ nests in honor of Amirani. The Amirani myth is associated with the origins of iron metallurgy and can be dated to the 3<sup>rd</sup> millennium B.C. The Greek myth of Prometheus is almost certainly derived from the Kartvelian myth of Amirani: “And lo, as they sped on, a deep gulf of the sea was opened, and lo, the steep crags of the Caucasian mountains rose up, where, with his limbs bound upon the hard rocks by galling fetters of bronze, Prometheus fed with his liver an eagle that ever rushed back to its prey” (Apollonius Rhodius, <i>Argonautica</i> II.1246-50).</div>
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2. The eleventh labor of Hercules was to steal the golden apples of the Hesperides, which were hidden in the far North. In order to accomplish this, Hercules journeyed to the Caucasus, where he slew the eagle with an arrow and released Prometheus from his torment, which had lasted 30,000 years. Out of gratitude, Prometheus revealed the location of the golden apples and showed him how he could obtain them by deceiving Atlas, another Titan. This story gave rise to two of the Greek constellations: Aquila (the Eagle) and Sagitta (the arrow).</div>
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3. The twins Phrixus and Helle, selected as victims for a fertility sacrifice by the Bœotians, were carried off by a ram with golden fleece. During the crossing from Europe to Asia, Helle fell off the ram and drowned, giving her name to the Hellespont. Phrixus was carried to Colchis, where he married Chalcipoe, the daughter of king Æëtes. In gratitude for his deliverance, Phrixus sacrificed the ram to Zeus and hung its golden fleece in the sacred grove of Ares, where it was guarded by a dragon that never slept. This set the stage for Jason’s quest of the golden fleece.</div>
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4. The Argonautic expedition (mentioned in the <i>Odyssey</i>, XII.69-72, in Hesiod’s <i>Theogony</i> 992-1002; and the subject of two extant epic poems: the <i>Argonautica</i> of Apollonius Rhodius [3<sup>rd</sup> century B.C.] and the <i>Argonautica</i> of Valerius Flaccus [1<sup>st</sup> century A.D.]). The voyage of Jason and the Argonauts to Colchis, the theft of the Golden Fleece, and Jason’s disastrous marriage to Medea, the sorceress, poisoner, and daughter of king Æëtes of Colchis, is one of the best-known of all the Greek myths. In keeping with the astrological theme of the present study, it is very interesting to note that Jason’s ship, the <i>Argo</i>, became one of the ancient Greek constellations. Arrian (early 2<sup>nd</sup> century A.D.) reports seeing the original anchor of the <i>Argo</i> displayed at the mouth of the Phasis (<i>Periplus</i> 9.2). In order to reach Colchis, the <i>Argo</i> had to pass through the Symplegades (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Sumplhga/dev</span>), a pair of treacherous moving rocks that guarded the entrance to the Black Sea. This testifies to the Greek conception of Colchis as an exotic and dangerous destination. Strabo reports the existence of numerous shrines to Jason (<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">’</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Iaso/nia</span>, i.e. “Jasonia”), which supposedly functioned as cult sites throughout the Caucasus (<i>Geographica</i> XI.iv.8, XI.xiii.10, XI.xiv.12).</div>
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5. Castor and Pollux, the twin sons of Zeus by Leda, known as the Dioscuri (“sons of Zeus”), accompanied Jason and the Argonauts to Colchis. They were served by the Laconian charioteers Rhecas and Amphistratus (Strabo, <i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.12; cf. Charax Pergamensis [2<sup>nd</sup> century A.D.], <i>apud Scholia ad Dionysium Periegeten</i> 687, where their names are given as Telchis and Amphitus). They are supposed to have led a group of Greek settlers to Colchis who subsequently became known as the Heniochi (<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">‘</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Hni/oxoi</span>, “charioteers”), one of the principal Colchian tribes. The Dioscuri, meanwhile, gave their name to Dioscurias (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Dioskouria/v</span>; mod. Sukhumi), an important Milesian mercantile colony established <i>circa</i> 550 B.C.</div>
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6. Thetis, the mother of Achilles, was said to have deposited his ashes in a <i>tumulus</i> on the island of Leuce in the Black Sea, near the mouths of the Danube. This island remained uninhabited and was still an important cult site in Roman times, with a temple, an oracle, and numerous votive offerings and inscriptions (Arrian, <i>Periplus</i> 23). According to Dionysius Periegetes (2<sup>nd</sup> century A.D.), the island was called Leuce (“white”) because all the wild animals born there were white. The souls of Achilles and other heroes were said to wander through the uninhabited valleys of the island (<i>De situ habitabilis orbis</i> 543-546). Achilles is also associated with a narrow spit of land east of the Crimea, in the vicinity of Kherson and Odessa, now divided into two islands (<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Тендровская коса</span><span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;"> </span>and <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Джарилгацька коса</span>), where he is supposed to have organized chariot races. Ammianus Marcellinus (4<sup>th</sup> century A.D.) describes this as “a narrow strip of shore which the natives call <span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">’</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Axille/wv dro/mov</span>, memorable in times past for the exercises of the Thessalian leader” (<i>Res gestae</i> XXII.8.41).</div>
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According to Appian, Pompey “advanced to Colchis in order to gain knowledge of the country visited by the Argonauts, the Dioscuri, and Hercules, and he especially desired to see the place where they say that Prometheus was fastened to Mount Caucasus. Many streams issue from Caucasus bearing gold-dust so fine as to be invisible. The inhabitants put sheepskins with shaggy fleece into the stream and thus collect the floating particles; and perhaps the golden fleece of Æëtes was of this kind. All the neighbouring tribes accompanied Pompey on his exploring expedition.” (<i>Historia Romana</i> XII.xv.103).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Æëtes was the son of the sun-god Helios, and it is clear that an important solar cult existed in the Caucasus from prehistoric times. The solar orb or disc is the most important motif associated with prehistoric Kartvelian monuments and burials, and numerous folk religious practices, survivals of this solar cult, persist in Svaneti to the present day. It appears that the kings of Colchis and Iberia identified themselves with the rising sun in a way comparable to the later characterization of Japan as “the land of the rising sun.” This was presumably because the Caucasus was understood to mark the eastern edge of the known world. It may also have some relation to the ancient Kartvelian trade in metals from the Altai mountains (5000 km distant) (Grove, 2010).<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Phasis river was conceived in Greco-Roman times as the gateway to an unknown and terrifying region, associated with witchcraft, poisons, medicinal herbs, and female warriors. “The name of Colchis evoked magic and especially witchcraft, particularly as practiced in the family of Aeetes, not only by Circe and Medea but also by Hecate herself. This was the homeland of the ‘root-cutters’: magic was something else that Colchis had in common with Egypt” (Braund, 1994, p. 21). The tribes of the Phasis were notorious for their extreme savagery. “In the beginning the Heniochi inhabited Phasis. They were cannibals and stripped the skin off men. Then the Milesians, and they are hospitable, so that they furnish victims of shipwreck with supplies, give them three minas and send them on their way” (Heraclides Ponticus, <i>De rebus publicis</i> xviii, trans. Braund, p. 96). The <i>Periegesis ad Nicomedem regem</i> of Pseudo-Scymnus (915) describes the Heniochi as “a people that hates outsiders” (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">eÂqnov miso/xenon</span>). Even Aristotle refers to the barbarous practices current in the region, making mention of “certain savage tribes on the coasts of the Black Sea, who are alleged to delight in raw meat or in human flesh, and others among whom each in turn provides a child for the common banquet” (<i>Ethica Nicomachea</i> VII.v.2); “There are many peoples inclined to murder and anthropophagy, for example among those around the Pontus the Achaeans and the Heniochi, and others of the mainland peoples, some in the same degree as those mentioned and some more, which although piratical, they have got no share in <i>andreia</i>” (<i>Politica</i> 1338B, 17-28).</div>
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Æëtes of Colchis was said to have been the brother of Perses, king of Taurica in the Crimea, another place notorious for human sacrifice. Diodorus Siculus offers an explanation of the hostility of the Colchians toward outsiders: “While Æëtes was king of Colchis, an oracle became known, to the effect that he was to come to the end of his life whenever strangers should land there and carry off the Golden Fleece. For this reason and because of his own cruelty as well, Æëtes ordained that strangers should be offered up in sacrifice, in order that the report of the cruelty of the Colchi having been spread abroad to every part of the world, no stranger should have the courage to set foot on the land (<i>Bibliotheca historica</i> IV.xlvii.2). The victim “was sacrificed to the gods, and when his body had been flayed the skin was nailed up on the temple, in keeping with a certain custom” (IV.xlvii.5). </div>
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Despite these formidable obstacles, the Milesians succeeded in establishing Greek mercantile colonies at Dioscurias (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Dioskouria/v</span>; a.k.a. Sebastopolis; modern Sukhumi) and at the mouth of the Phasis; a silver bowl dated to the 5<sup>th</sup> century B.C. has been found bearing the inscription, “I belong to Apollo the Supreme of Phasis” (Arrian, 2003, ed. Liddle, p. 102). </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Aelius Aristides (<i>Ad Romam</i> 82) describes the Phasis, along with the Euphrates, Ethiopia, and Britain, as one of the four cornerstones of the Roman Empire, “whose boundaries extend from the setting of the sun and the Western ocean to Mount Caucasus and the river Euphrates” (Appian, <i>Historia Romana</i>, <i>prooemium</i> 9). “The Phasis was a principal landmark of the world, akin to the Nile” (Braund, 1994, p. 26), cf. Apollonius Rhodius: “And at night, by the skill of Argus, they reached broad-flowing Phasis, and the utmoste bourne of the sea” (<i>Argonautica</i> II.1260-61).</div>
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The mouth of the Phasis was extremely wide and surrounded by marshes, which were reported to be infested with crocodiles. Arrian writes that the Phasis “supplies the lightest and the strangest-coloured water of any of the rivers I know” (<i>Periplus</i> 8.1) . . . “the colour of the Phasis is that of water that has been tainted with lead or tin; but, being left to stand, it becomes extremely clear. Furthermore, those who sail in are traditionally forbidden from importing water into the Phasis, and as soon as they enter its stream they are ordered to pour out all water from outside that is on the ships. Those neglecting to do so, it is said, will not otherwise sail on favourably. And the water of the Phasis does not stagnate, but remains unchanged for upwards of ten years – if anything, it becomes fresher” (8.5). He adds that “some say Tanaïs divides Europe from Asia, others say the Phasis (19.1-2).</div>
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There were a great many interesting legends associated with the geography of the Black Sea and the Caucasus. For example, it was believed that the Caspian Sea drained into the Black Sea by way of a great subterranean channel: “there is the lake beneath the Caucasus, which the inhabitants call a sea: for this is fed by many great rives, and having no obvious outlet runs out beneath the earth in the district of the Coraxi and comes up somewhere about the so-called deeps of Pontus. (This is a part of the sea whose depth is unfathomable: at any rate no sounding has yet succeeded in finding the bottom.) Here at about three hundred stades’ distance from shore fresh water comes up over a large area” (Aristotle, <i>Meteorologica</i> I.xiii). There were supposed to be other subterranean passages as well: “The men there seize the transgressor, sew him up in a leather sack, and cast him down a hole known as the Mouth of the Impious, which is round like the mouth of a well. Cast down this hole, the sack emerges 30 days later in the Maeotis, seething with worms; where of a sudden the body is seized and torn to pieces by several vultures unseen before, nor is it known from whence they come;—as Ctesippus relates in his Second Book of Scythian Relations” (Pseudo-Plutarch, <i>De fluviis</i> 5.2).</div>
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It was generally assumed in Antiquity that both the Caspian Sea and the Maeotis (Sea of Azov) were gulfs of the outer Ocean, and there was much lore about a supposed “isthmus” separating the Black and Caspian Seas, which were thought to lie very close together somewhere in the vicinity of Dioscurias (mod. Sukhumi): “Towards the other promontory [of Asia], passing through a long narrow strait and then broadening out again, it makes the Hyrcanian or Caspian sea; beyond this, it occupies a deep hollow beyond Lake Maeotis” (Pseudo-Aristotle, <i>De mundo</i> 3).</div>
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The Caucasus was believed to be the highest mountain range on earth: “A proof of its height is the fact that it is visible both from the so-called Deeps and also as you sail into Lake Maeotis; and also that its peaks are sunlit for a third part of the night, both before sunrise and again after sunset” (Aristotle, <i>Meteorologica</i> I.xiii).</div>
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Other errors of geography included the belief that the Caucasus range was somehow connected to the Himalayas, or “Indian Caucasus” (a notion perpetuated by Percey Bysshe Shelley as late as 1820 (<i>Prometheus Unbound</i>); and the associated belief that the Sindi of the Taman peninsula were of Indian origin (Hesychius Alexandrinus, <i>Lexicon</i>, s.v. <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Si/ndoi</span>).</div>
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Greek writers also tell of monstrous snow-worms infesting the passes of the Caucasus: “It is said . . . that living creatures breed in the snow (Apollonides calls these creatures ‘scoleces’ [<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">skw/lhkav</span>] and Theophanes ‘thripes’ [<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">qri=pav</span>])” (Strabo, <i>Geographica</i> XI.xiv.4).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Phasis was famous in Roman times as a source of culinary delicacies. “Agatharchides of Cnidus, discussing the Phasis river in the thirty-fourth book of his <i>European History</i>, writes this also: ‘Innumerable birds, of the sort called pheasants, resort for food to the mouths of the river’” (Athenaeus, <i>Deipnosophistae</i> IX.387). Columella speaks disparagingly of “those who clear of all their birds the river Phasis in Pontus and the pools of Lake Maeotis in Scythia” (<i>De re rustica</i> VII.viii.10). Pheasants from the Caucasus were greatly sought-after for the tables of Roman gourmands; indeed, the word “pheasant” is derived from “Phasis.” Athenaeus complains of those who “deliver claptrap orations wherever crowds collect, wasting the livelong day in jugglers’ tricks, and among the adventurers who come from the Phasis or the Borysthenes” (<i>Deipnosophistae</i> I.6). In another passage (V.201), Athenaeus describes a gourmandistic procession organized by king Ptolemy: “Then were brought, in cages, parrots, peacocks, guinea-fowls, and birds from the Phasis [<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">fasianoi\ oÂrniqev</span>, i.e. pheasants] and others from Aethiopia, in great quantities.” In the 9<sup>th</sup> book of the <i>Deipnosiphistae</i>, Athenaeus discusses various terms for the pheasant, including <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">fasiano/v, fasianiko/v, fasiano/v oÂrniv, tatu/rav, </span>and<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;"> te/tarov </span>(IX.387). </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>While the Greeks were very interested in obtaining exotic goods from the Phasis region, the Kartvelians did not have a westward orientation. With the exception of pirates and fishermen, they did not frequent the coast, which they regarded as a place of ill omen. A brood of evil spirits known as the <i>bat’onebi</i> (“lords”) were thought to live opposite to them, on the western shore of the Black Sea, and were associated with pestilence-bearing winds (Berman, 2008b). As a result, the coastline was generally deserted, apart from a few trading settlements at the mouths of rivers, with dense forests extending down to the shore. </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Ascending the Phasis, one came to the Colchian capital of Aia (mod. Kutaisi). Proceeding further, one crossed the Likhi (a.k.a. Surami) range, the watershed between Europe and Asia, beyond which lay the kingdom of Iberia. This region was drained by another great river-system, the Kura (Mtkvari), which drained into the Caspian Sea. “Strabo notes a harder, rougher way of life, as he goes eastward, from the busy ports of Colchis over the mountains into the agricultural plain of Iberia, and further towards the Caspian into the parts of the half-nomadic Albanians” (Allen, 1971, p. 47).</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>Classical antiquity: Mithridates and the Romans</b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Iberian influence over western Georgia had waned by the late 2<sup>nd</sup> century B.C. (Suny, 1994), with the result that Colchis became tributary to the short-lived empire of Mithridates VI of Pontus (120-63 B.C.). “Western Georgia thus passed out of the Persian and Iberian sphere of influence into the Greco-Roman culture of the classical cities of the Black Sea littoral” (Suny, 1994, p. 13); “a small, but eloquent illustration of that division is provided by the engraved gems produced on each side of the Surami Ridge. From the archaic through the Hellenistic periods the engraved gems of Iberia show the marked influence of Mesopotamia and Achaemenid Persia, while the principal influences upon their counterparts in Colchis came from Ionia and the west” (Braund, 1994, p. 42).</div>
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The Pontic state had originated as a satrapy of the Persian Empire, whose ruling dynasty managed to survive into the Hellenistic period. The kingdom of Pontus occupied the southeastern coast of the Black Sea, extending from the Halys river (east of Sinope) to the Acampsis (a.k.a. Apsarus) river in the east, which separated it from Colchis. Thus, the majority of its population was comprised of various Kartvelian tribes. </div>
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During the first century B.C., Mithridates created a powerful empire in the Black Sea, posing the greatest threat to Roman power in the Mediterranean since Hannibal’s passage of the Alps. Mithridates gained control of nearly the entire Black Sea littoral, including Colchis, the Greek coastal settlements, and numerous tribes of the interior (Appian, <i>Historia Romana</i> XII.iii.15). In this way he was able to deny the Romans access to the vital supplies of Black Sea timber. </div>
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Mithridates’ allies included “Chalybes, Armenians, Scythians, Taurians, Achaeans, Heniochi, Leucosyrians, and those who occupy the territory about the river Thermodon, called the country of the Amazons,” as well as various Sarmatian tribes (Appian, <i>Historia Romana</i> XII.x.69; XII.iii.19). In 108 B.C., he succeeded in conquering the Cimmerian Bosporus (<i>Regnum Bosporanum</i>) as well, an important supplier of corn to the Mediterranean. </div>
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Mithridates waged three wars against the Romans (First Mithridatic War, 88-84 B.C.; Second Mithridatic War, 83-81 B.C.; Third Mithridatic War, 75-63 B.C.). </div>
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In 88 B.C., on the advice of the philosopher Metrodorus of Scepsis, Mithridates sent out secret letters to the civic authorities throughout his domains, ordering the massacre of all Romans on Pontic territory. The massacres began simultaneously exactly one month after the date of Mithridates’ letter, resulting in the deaths of 80,000 Romans and the outbreak of the First Mithridatic War (Appian, <i>Historia Romana</i> XII.iv.22-23). The appearance of Halley’s Comet the following year (87 B.C.) was extremely demoralizing to the Romans (Mayor, 2010). However, the war ended with the expulsion of Mithridates’ armies from Greece, though his control of the Black Sea remained unchallenged. </div>
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The Third Mithridatic War (75-63 B.C.) was undertaken in alliance with Sertorius, the rebellious Roman governor of Spain. After a series of military reverses, Mithridates was forced to take refuge with king Tigranes of Armenia (69 B.C.). Defeated by Pompey in 66 B.C., Mithridates withdrew into the Caucasus. He wintered at Dioscorias (mod. Sukhumi), and from there he “pushed on through strange and warlike Scythian tribes, partly by permission, partly by force, so respected and feared was he still, although a fugitive and in misfortune. He passed through the country of the Heniochi, who received him willingly. The Achaeans, who resisted him, he put to flight. . . . Mithridates finally reached the Maeotis, of which there were many princes, all of whom received him, escorted him, and exchanged numerous presents with him, on account of the fame of his deeds, his empire, and his power, which was still not to be despised” (Appian, <i>Historia Romana</i> XII.xv.102). </div>
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To accomplish this remarkable feat of arms, Mithridates passed through the Caucasus by way of “the so-called Scythian Gates, which had never been passed by any one before” (Appian, <i>Historia Romana</i> XII.xv.102). Mithridates planned to make a complete circuit of the Black Sea and seize the Bosporus, thus reappearing behind Pompey and threatening his lines of communication and supply to Italy. </div>
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Pompey, meanwhile, “pursued Mithridates in his flight as far as Colchis, but he thought that his foe would never get round to Pontus or to the Maeotis, or undertake anything great now that he had been driven out of his kingdom” (Appian, <i>Historia Romana</i> XII.xv.103). After frustrating the attempt by the Iberians and Albanians to ambush him in the vicinity of Mtskheta, Pompey turned southward, conquering the Nabataeans and occupying Jerusalem (65 B.C.). </div>
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“While Pompey was about this business Mithridates had completed his circuit of the Euxine and occupied Panticapaeum” (Appian, <i>Historia Romana</i> XII.xvi.107). At the same time, a revolt broke out in Mithridates’ army, demanding that he abdicate in favor of his son Pharnaces. Unable to salvage the situation, Mithridates withdrew to the citadel of Panticapaeum and committed suicide (63 B.C.). </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Pompey’s triumph at Rome included a procession of captives “from Pontus, Armenia, Cappadocia, Cilicia and all Syria, besides Albanians, Heniochi, Achaeans of Scythia, and Eastern Iberians [<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">ÍIbhri/av th=v eÓw÷av</span>] . . .Olthaces, chief of the Colchians, was also led in the procession, and Aristobulus, king of the Jews, the tyrants of the Cilicians, and the female rulers of the Scythians, three chiefs of the Iberians, two of the Albanians, and Menander the Laodicean, who had been chief of cavalry to Mithridates” (Appian, <i>Historia Romana</i> XII.xvii.116-117). Iberia became a Roman client-state, while Colchis was reduced to a Roman province. </div>
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Upon the outbreak of civil war between Caesar and Pompey (49 B.C.), Pharnaces (Mithridates’ son and successor) seized Colchis and Lesser Armenia and drove the Romans out of Pontus. However, he was decisively defeated by Julius Caesar at Zela (2 August 47 B.C.) and fled to the Cimmerian Bosporus, where he was slain in battle against his son-in-law Asander. </div>
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When Polemo I of Pontus was captured and put to death by the Aspurgiani (8 B.C.), his widow Pythodoris, a granddaughter of Mark Anthony, succeeded him as ruler of Pontus, Cilicia, and Colchis: “At last Polemon got Colchis; and since his death his wife Pythodoris has been in power, being queen, not only of the Colchians, but also of Trapezus and Pharnacia and of the barbarians who live above these places” (Strabo, <i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.18).</div>
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In 64 A.D., Nero annexed Pontus, deposing its last king, Julius Polemo II, “under whose auspices Colchis was ruled” (Liddle, 2003, p. 6). Thus, Colchis remained within the Greco-Roman sphere of influence, while Iberia and Albania were within the Persian sphere of influence. In 68 A.D., Nero dispatched <i>Legio I Italia</i> to the Caspian Gates (Derbent) in anticipation of a war with the Caucasian Albanians; this project was aborted, however, upon the emperor’s death later that same year (Liddle, 2003). The ensuing civil war spilled into the Caucasus, where in A.D. 69 “a certain Anicetus had intervened for Vitellius against Vespasian, hijacking the fleet, stirring up local tribes, and sacking Trapezous” (Liddle, 2003, p. 8). Vespasian (reigned 69-79 A.D.), who emerged victorious from this “Year of the Four Emperors” constructed a fortress at Harmozica near Tbilisi (75 A.D.), “ostensibly for the benefit of king Mithridates” (Liddle, Arrian, 2003, p. 10). This fortress controlled access to the Dariel Pass.</div>
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During the first and second centuries A.D., the Romans established a series of military bases along the Black Sea coast: Trapezus, Hyssus, Apsarus, Phasis, Sebastopolis and Pityus (Kakhidze, 2008, p. 311). Apsarus was an especially imposing fortress with 22 towers, equipped with war engines and garrisoned by five cohorts (about 2500 men) (Arrian, <i>Periplus</i> 6.2). The presence of war engines in such an isolated locality is quite unusual. Liddle (Arrian, 2003) attributes this circumstance to the presence further up the coast of the Zydritae, vassals of the king of Iberia, which he identifies as “a destabilizing element among the client-kings” (p. 101). Arrian records the presence of “400 select troops” in the Roman fort at Phasis (<i>Periplus</i> 9.3) and mentions another Roman garrison at Dioscurias, “the camp which is the limit of Roman control” (<i>Periplus</i> 17.2). </div>
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Under Roman rule, Colchis enjoyed all the benefits of civilization: “I certainly know of no other subject race with such ample resources of manpower at its command or which is blessed with such a superfluity of wealth, with such an ideal geographical position, with such an abundance of all the necessaries of life, and with such a high standard of civilization and refinement. The ancient inhabitants of the place were indeed completely unaware of the benefits of navigation and had not even heard of ships until the arrival of the famous Argo. Nowadays they put out to sea whenever practicable and carry on a thriving commerce. Nor are they barbarians in any other respect, long association with the Romans having led them to adopt a civilized and law-abiding style of life.” (Agathias, <i>Historiae</i> III.v.2-4, trans. J.D. Fendo, quoted by Braund, 1994, pp. 49-50). This remarkable transition is summarized by Pomponius Mela: <i>olim ex colentium saevo admodum ingenio Axenus, post commercio aliarum gentium mollitis aliquantum moribus dictus Euxinus</i> (<i>De chorographia</i> I.102).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>There was considerable tension between the Romans and the kingdom of Iberia, which had traditionally fallen within the Persian sphere of influence. When the emperor Hadrian visited Colchis in 129 A.D. and invited Pharasmenes of Iberia to an audience, the king sent him an arrogant refusal (Liddle, Arrian, 2003). The situation improved somewhat later in the century: “The visit to Rome of king Pharasmanes of Iberia at the time of Antoninus Pius is considered the high point in Ibero-Roman relations” (Plontke-<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;"> Lüning</span>, 2007b, p. 695). The Iberian frontier remained tense, however.</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>Tribes of the Ancient Caucasus:</b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Greek and Roman writers were fascinated by the alien cultures and linguistic complexity of the Caucasus, and recorded much fascinating information about them. Roman agents and expeditions penetrated into isolated parts of the Caucasus. The Qobistan inscription, a <i>graffito</i> found near Baku, was left by one Livius Maximus, a Roman officer who had penetrated all the way to the Caspian (ed. Merlin, 1952, N<sup>o</sup> 263). </div>
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Strabo (1<sup>st</sup> century A.D.) describes Dioscurias as “the common emporium of the tribes who are situated above it and in its vicinity; at any rate seventy tribes come together in it, though others, who care nothing for the facts, actually say three hundred. All speak different languages because of the fact that, by reason of their obstinacy and ferocity, they live in scattered groups and without intercourse with one another” (<i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.16). Concerning Dioscurias, Pliny the Elder states that “according to Timosthenes 300 tribes speaking different languages used to resort to it; and subsequently business was carried on there by Roman traders with the help of a staff of 130 interpreters” (<i>Naturalis historia</i> VI.iv.15).</div>
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According to Pliny the Elder, Mithridates of Pontus (120-63 B.C.) “who was a king of twenty-two races gave judgements in as many languages, in an assembly addressing each race in turn without an interpreter.” (<i>Historia naturalis</i> VII.xxiv.88). Because of its remarkable linguistic diversity, the Caucasus was later known to the Arabs as <i>jabal al-alsina</i> (“mountain of tongues”).</div>
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Information about the tribes and kingdoms of the Caucasus in Greco-Roman times is preserved in a couple of dozen extant texts. Many of these are <i>periploi</i> (“circumnavigations”), a special genre of geographical literature presenting lists of tribes, towns, rivers, and other coastal features of a given body of water. </div>
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Extant classical works which provide such information include Pseudo-Scylax (<i>Periplus Maris Interni</i>; 4<sup>th</sup> century B.C.), Apollonius Rhodius (<i>Argonautica</i>; 3<sup>rd</sup> century B.C.), Pseudo-Scymnus (<i>Periegesis ad Nicomedem regem</i>; 2<sup>nd</sup> century B.C.), Strabo (<i>Geographica</i>; 1<sup>st</sup> century A.D.), Pliny the Elder (<i>Naturalis historia</i>; 1<sup>st</sup> century A.D.), Pomponius Mela (<i>De chorographia</i>; 1<sup>st</sup> century A.D.), Valerius Flaccus (<i>Argonautica</i>; 1<sup>st</sup> century A.D.), Menippus Pergamenus (<i>Periplus</i>; 1<sup>st</sup> century A.D.), Arrian (<i>Periplus Euxini Ponti</i>; 133 A.D.), Dionysius Periegetes (<i>De situ habitabilis orbis;</i> 2<sup>nd</sup> century A.D.), Ptolemy (<i>Geographia</i>; 2<sup>nd</sup> century A.D.), Pseudo-Arrian (<i>Periplus Maeotidis paludis</i>; 3<sup>rd</sup> century A.D.), Ammianus Marcellinus (<i>Res gestae</i>; 4<sup>th</sup> century A.D.), Avienus (<i>Descriptio orbis terrae</i>; 4<sup>th</sup> century A.D.), the anonymous <i>Periplus Ponti Euxini</i> (5<sup>th</sup> century A.D.), Priscian (<i>Periegesis e Dionysio</i>; 6<sup>th</sup> century A.D.), Stephanus Byzantinus (<i>Ethnica</i>; 6<sup>th</sup> century A.D., partially preserved in the 10<sup>th</sup> century <i>De administrando imperio</i> of Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus), the Armenian <i>Geography</i> of Ananias of <span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">Š</span>irak (7<sup>th</sup> century), Eustathius of Thessalonica (<i>Commentarii in Dionysium Periegetam</i>; 12<sup>th</sup> century), and Nicephorus Blemmydes (<i>Paraphrasis in Dionysium Periegetam</i>; 13<sup>th</sup> century). </div>
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Useful secondary sources include de Boer (2007), Braund (1994), Diakonoff (1984), Hewsen (1992), Ilyushechkin (2009), Jaimoukha (2011), Kavtaradze (1997 and 2002), Liddle (2003), Toumanoff (1963), and the <i>Barrington Atlas</i> (2000).</div>
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The coastal plains were densely populated, as noted by many classical writers, e.g. Apollonius Rhodius: “and all round dwell countless tribes of Colchians” (<i>Argonautica</i> II.1204-05); Ammianus Marcellinus refers to “populous districts” along the coast between Apsarus and the Phasis (<i>Res gestae</i> XXII.8.24). The region was divided into dozens of small kingdoms and tribal states. Many of these (e.g. the Macrones, Colchi, Lazi, Zydritae, Taochi, Zygii) were known by their own ethnic designations. Others were known by Greek nicknames of various sorts, in a way analogous to the American designations for various Native American nations (e.g. the Blackfoot, Flathead, Fox, Crow, or Nez Percé). Such designations include the Camaritae (“skiff-farers”), Heptacometae (“those with seven locks”), Macrocephali (“long-heads”), Mosynoeci (“tower-dwellers”), Phthirophagi (“flea-eaters”), Macropogones (“long-beards”), and Melanchlaeni (“black-cloaks”). Still others (Heniochi, Philyres, Achaei) took their names from Greek mythic associations.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></div>
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Classical accounts of the region reveal a fluid political situation, as the relative locations of the various tribes shifted over time. To give one of the more striking examples, both Dionysius Periegetes (2<sup>nd</sup> century A.D.; <i>De situ habitabilis orbis</i> 765) and Ammianus Marcellinus (4<sup>th</sup> century A.D.; <i>Res gestae</i> XXII.8.21) mention the Byzeres as one of the tribes inhabiting the Anatolian coastal plain. If both lists reflect relative geographical positions, it appears that the Byzeres migrated westward between the 2<sup>nd</sup> century (when they inhabited the southeast corner of the Black Sea) and the 4<sup>th</sup> century (when they are associated with the Chalybes in the vicinity of Amisus). The <i>Periplus Ponti Euxini</i> (5<sup>th</sup> century) appears to offer confirmation of this, for it states (9v4) that in the tract between the Apsarus and Archabis rivers (just southwest of the Roman fortress of Apsarus) “there formerly dwelt the people known as Buseres (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Bou/shrev</span>), but now the Zydritae (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Zudri/tai</span>) live there.” This is a bit surprising because most of the Kartvelian tribes were apparently migrating eastward at the time. Liddle (2003) notes that “Arrian has [the Achaious river] as the southern boundary of the territory of the Zilchoi, a people well attested in various locations in the north east corner of the Black Sea (see Strabo XI.2.12, 14, calling them Zygoi; Pliny, <i>NH</i> VI.19, as the Zigae; Procopius, <i>Bell.</i> VIII.4.1-2, as the Zechoi) and whose movement throughout the six hundred years represented by these citations is symptomatic of the fluidity of population movements on the frontiers of the Empire” (p. 121). The coastal towns designated by Arrian as “Old Lazica” (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Palaia\ Lazikh/</span>) and “Old Achaea” (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Palaia\ Axaii+/a</span>) “again highlight the extent of tribal movements in the region” (p. 123), since the Lazi resided much further south in Arrian’s day; the Achaei, by contrast, had migrated further to the north but had given their name not only to Old Achaea but also to the river Achaious (mod. Sochi river) far to the south, “which river separates the Zilchoi and the Sanigai” (Arrian, <i>Periplus</i> 18.3).</div>
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It may prove useful and interesting at this point to provide a summary of this information, along with some of the more colorful details. </div>
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Let us start our <i>periplus</i> at the Cimmerian Bosporus (modern Strait of Kerch), which was controlled by the <i>Regnum Bosporanum</i>. This kingdom, established around 480 B.C., was centered around a number of Greek mercantile colonies in the Crimea (Panticapaeum, Cercinitis, Theodosia, Phanagoria, Nymphaeum, Hermonassa, Cimmericum, Chersonesus). For most of its history, this kingdom was ruled by a Thracian dynasty, the Artocids. It eventually became a Roman client kingdom and a very important commercial center, controlling access to the northern branch of the Silk Road: “All the people who are subject to the potentates of the Bosporus are called Bosporians; and Panticapaeum is the metropolis of the European Bosporians, while Phangoreium . . . is the metropolis of the Asiatic Bosporians. Phanagoreia is reputed to be the emporium for the commodities that are brought down from the Maeotis and the barbarian country that lies above it, and Panticapaeum for those which are carried up thither from the sea” (Strabo, <i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.10). </div>
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The southern coast of the Crimea (Taurica) was occupied by the Tauri (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Tau=roi</span>), a Northwest Caucasian people connected to the Circassians. In earlier times, the Tauri had been notorious for sacrificing and displaying the heads of shipwrecked travelers (cf. Euripides, <i>Iphigenia in Tauride</i>).</div>
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The Cimmerian Bosporus gave access to the Palus Maeotis (modern Sea of Azov), a shallow sea teeming with birds and fish. Strabo (<i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.8) speaks of “the Maeotis being so frozen at the time of frosts that it can be crossed on foot.” The shores of the Maeotis were inhabited by numerous tribes. Those tribes known collectively as the Maeotae (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Maiw=tai</span>) were connected to the Circassians and appear to have been the original inhabitants of the region. These included the Dandarii, Agri, Arrechi, Tarpetes, Obidiaceni, Sittaceni, Dosci, and Aspurgiani, among others. Concerning the Aspurgiani, Strabo writes that “these were attacked by King Polemon under a pretence of friendship, but they discovered his pretence, outgeneraled him, and taking him alive killed him” (<i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.11). The numerous Scythian and Sarmatian tribes of the Maeotis had migrated into the region during the first millennium B.C. and were in the process of replacing the Maeotae. By the 4<sup>th</sup> or 5<sup>th</sup> century, a number of Gothic tribes such as the Eudusiani had settled in the Crimea and the Maeotis as well. According to an obscure tradition current among the Greeks, the Tyndari (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Tundari/dev</span>), one of the tribes of the Maeotis, were (like the Heniochi) descendants of the Argonauts (Eustathius, <i>Commentarii in Dionysium Periegetam</i> 687; Pliny, <i>Naturalis historia </i>VI.vii.19). The presence of an inscribed silver bowl dedicated to “Apollo the Supreme of Phasis” (dated to 420/400 B.C.) in a burial mound of the first century B.C. near the River Kuban may be the consequence of a raid by Northwest Caucasian peoples into Colchis; alternatively, it may testify to the development of trade between Colchis and other Black Sea ports. The ruling élite of Olbia, at the mouth of the Bug, appear to have been of Colchian origin; while the city of Panticapaeum in the Crimea is supposed to have been founded by a son of King Æëtes of Colchis (Braund, 1994, p. 68).</div>
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Crossing to the other side of the Strait of Kerch, we find that the Bosporan kingdom controlled the towns of Phanagoria and Hermonassa at the end of the Taman peninsula. This district bordered on Sindica to the east.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></div>
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The Sindi (Sindones, <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Sindoi/</span>) were considered a branch of the Maeotae and were apparently speakers of a Northwest Caucasian language. This very interesting ethnic group occupied most of the Taman peninsula, known as the “Sindic territory” (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Sindikh/</span>). According to Hesychius Alexandrinus (5<sup>th</sup> century A.D.), the Sindi were of Indian origin (<i>Lexicon</i>, s.v. <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Si/ndoi</span>). Ammianus Marcellinus describes the Sindi as “people of low birth, who after the disaster to their masters in Asia got possession of their wives and property” (<i>Res gestae</i> XXII.8.41). A fuller account of this is found in Justin: “The Scythians had been away from their wives and children for eight years on their third expedition into Asia, and they now faced a war with their slaves at home. The wives had tired of the long wait for their husbands and, thinking that they had been wiped out in battle rather than merely detained by the war, married the slaves who had been left in charge of the cattle. When their masters returned victorious, the slaves armed themselves and drove them back from the borders as though they were foreigners” (<i>Historiarum Philippicarum epitome</i> II.v.1-3). Athenaeus (<i>Deipnosophistae</i> XII.530) preserves some iambic verses by Phoenix of Colophon which mention the “long-haired Sindian from the northern marshes” (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">aÍpo\ tw=n aÂnw limnw=n </span>/<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;"> Sindo\v komh/tev</span>). The Sindic royal residence was at Gorgippia (originally a Greek colony). Archaeology reveals that the Sindi were thoroughly Hellenized and enjoyed a high level of material culture. Several classical authors repeat the mistaken assumption that the Sindi were of Indian origin.</div>
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The next stretch of coastline was occupied by two Northwest Caucasian tribes: the Cercetae (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Kerketai/</span>) and the Toreatae (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Torea=tai</span>, <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Toretai/</span>). Both of these were seagoing peoples and practiced piracy. The name of the Cercetae is clearly connected to “Cherkess” (Tk. Çerkes), “Circassia,” and the earlier “Kashkai” ethnonym. Hesychius Alexandrinus, however, claims that the Cercetae, like the Sindi, were of Indian origin (<i>Lexicon</i>, s.v. <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Kerke/tai</span>).</div>
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Continuing southward, we come next to the domains of the Achaei (<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">’</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Axaioi/,</span> “Achaeans”), an extinct people who formerly dominated part of the Northwest Caucasus in the vicinity of Mt. Elbrus (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Stro/bilov</span>), where they lived in proximity to several Northwest Caucasian tribes (Zygii, Cercetae, Toreatae). According to Ammianus Marcellinus, they were the descendants of Greeks who became stranded there at some point during the second millennium B.C.: “After the end of an earlier war at Troy (not the one which was fought about Helen, as some writers have asserted), being carried out of their course by contrary winds to Pontus, and meeting enemies everywhere, [they] were unable to find a place for a permanent home, and so they settled on the tops of mountains covered with perpetual snow, where, compelled by the rigorous climate, they became accustomed to make a dangerous living by robbery, and hence became later beyond all measure savage” (<i>Res Gestae</i> XXII.8.25). Appian tells us that they “underwent great sufferings there at the hands of the barbarians because they were Greeks; and when they sent to their home for ships and their request was disregarded, they conceived such a hatred for the Grecian race that whenever they captured any Greeks they immolated them in Scythian fashion. At first in their anger they served all in this way, afterwards only the handsomest ones, and finally a few chosen by lot” (<i>Historia Romana</i> XII.xv.102). The Achaeans repeatedly defied Mithridates of Pontus, who fought them on two occasions (80 B.C. and 65 B.C.) (<i>Historia Romana</i> XII.x.67; XII.xv.102); on the former occasion, the Achaeans destroyed two divisions of his army. By the 5<sup>th</sup> century A.D., the Achaeans had disappeared, their territories being occupied by the Circassian Zygii.</div>
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Next in order came the Zygii (Zigae;<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;"> Zugoi/</span>, <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Zilxoi/</span>, <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Zh=xoi</span>), the main body of the Circassians, occupying a large tract of the Black Sea coast and the adjacent mountains. The word “Zigius” is obviously cognate to “djiget,” a later word used to designate a Circassian and a Circassian warrior in particular. The Zigii appear to have had some degree of central organization even at this early time, for Arrian reports that they were ruled in his day by a king Stachemphax, a client of Hadrian (<i>Periplus</i> 18.3). Until early modern times, a fictive “kingdom of Jigeti” continued to exist under the titular sovereignty of the prince of Abkhazia.</div>
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Strabo writes that “after the Sindic territory and Gorgipia, on the sea, one comes to the coast of the Achaei and the Zygi and the Heniochi, which for the most part is harbourless and mountainous, being a part of the Caucasus. These peoples live by robberies at sea. Their boats are slender, narrow, and light, holding only about twenty-five people, though in rare cases they can hold thirty in all; the Greeks call them ‘camarae.’ . . . At any rate, by equipping fleets of ‘camarae’ and sailing sometimes against merchant-vessels and sometimes against a country or even a city, they hold the mastery of the sea. And they are sometimes assisted even by those who hold the Bosporus, the latter supplying them with mooring-places, with market-place, and with means of disposing of their booty. And since, when they return to their own land, they have no anchorage, they put the ‘camarae’ on their shoulders and carry them to the forests where they live and where they till a poor soil. And they bring the ‘camarae’ down to the shore again when the time for navigation comes.” (Strabo, <i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.12).</div>
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South of the Zigii, and separated from them by the Achaious river (mod. Sochi river) were the Abkhazians. Several unrelated peoples occupied enclaves within their territories: the Bruchi (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Brou=xoi</span>), another Northwest Caucasian people ancestral to the Ubykh, occupied the valley of the Borgys river (modern Psou river). South of this, the territory surrounding the town of Nitice (Stennitice; in the vicinity of modern Gagra) was occupied by a Scythian tribe known as the “pine-cone eaters.” The Greek designation for this tribe appears to have been “Phthirophagi” (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Fqeirofa/goi</span>), a term which was generally understood to mean “flea-eaters” and which was mistakenly applied in later times to a Kartvelian mountain tribe, the Saltiae (Pliny, <i>Naturalis historia</i> VI.iv.14). The Scythian Phthirophagi were apparently extinct by the 2<sup>nd</sup> century A.D. (Arrian, <i>Periplus </i>18.1-2;<i> Periplus Ponti Euxini</i> 9v44). Still further south, the Greek mercantile colony of Pityus (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Pituou=v</span>; modern Pitsunda) was founded in the 5<sup>th</sup> century B.C. The town was sacked by the Heniochi at some point between 7 B.C. (Strabo, <i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.14) and 77 A.D. (Pliny, <i>Naturalis historia</i> VI.v.16); it received a Roman garrison late in the 2<sup>nd</sup> century A.D. (Liddle, 2003). By the 1<sup>st</sup> century A.D., the mountain district behind Pityus was occupied by the Epagerritae, a Sarmatian tribe (Pliny, <i>Naturalis historia</i> VI.v.16).</div>
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As for the Abkhazians, they were divided into three main tribal kingdoms in Greco-Roman times. The northernmost of these were the Abasci (Abasgi,<b> </b><span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">’</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Abaskoi/, </span><span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">’</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Abasgoi/</span>), who occupied the coast in the vicinity of Pityus. Arrian (2<sup>nd</sup> century A.D.) reports that they were ruled in his day by a king, Rhesmagas (<i>Periplus</i> XI.3). In the 6<sup>th</sup> and 7<sup>th</sup> centuries, the Abasgi were ruled by two kings, “possibly representing two lines of the dynasty” (Toumanoff, 1963, p. 256). The kings of the Abasgi were notorious for selling off their subjects as eunuchs for service throughout the Greco-Roman world, a practice which ended with the conversion of the Abasgi to Christianity during the 6<sup>th</sup> century (Procopius, <i>De bellis</i> VIII.iii.15-21). Next were the Sanigae, in whose territories the Milesian colony of Dioscurias was founded <i>circa</i> 550 B.C. According to Arrian (<i>Periplus</i> XI.3), the Sanigae were ruled in his day by Spadagas, a client of Hadrian. The third Abkhaz tribe was the Apsilae (<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">’</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Ayi/lai, </span><span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">’</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Ayi/lioi</span><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">), a name that is clearly cognate to the Abkhaz self-designations Аҧсуа (“Abkhaz”) and Аҧсны (“Abkhazia”). The Apsilae dwelt south of the </span>Sanigae, around the Hippus estuary (mod. Kodori river) and were ruled by a king Julianus in Arrian’s day (<i>Periplus</i> XI.3). </div>
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The Abkhaz came under strong pressure from the Kartvelian tribes to the south. Strabo reports that by the time of Mithridates (early 1<sup>st</sup> century B.C.), the Heniochi had gained possession of the coast north of Pityus, bordering on the territories of the Achaei and Zygii, where they likewise devoted themselves to piracy (<i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.12, 14). The Heniochi were also associated with the region around Dioscurias (a town established, according to legend, by their own founders, the Dioscuri) (Ammianus Marcellinus, <i>Res gestae</i> XXII.8.24; <i>Barrington Atlas</i>, map 87). Procopius, however (6<sup>th</sup> century A.D.), reports that “the Abasgi have been from ancient times subjects of the Lazi” (<i>De bellis</i> VIII.iii.12).</div>
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Apart from these incursions by tribes living to the south, the northernmost Kartvelian tribes appear to have been the Coraxi (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Koracoi/</span>), the Melanchlaeni (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Mela/gxlainoi</span>), and the Lonchi (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Lo/gxoi</span>), who occupied part of the valley of the Corax (mod. Bzyb river) (Pliny, <i>Naturalis historia</i> VI.v.15; <i>Periplus Ponti Euxini</i> 9v11). </div>
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The upper reaches of the Hippus valley (mod. Kodori river) were occupied by the Misimiani (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Misimianoi/, Missimianoi/</span>), an extinct branch of the Svan ethnicity. This ethnonym is clearly derived from <i>Mushüan</i>, the Svan self-designation. Between the 1<sup>st</sup> and 6<sup>th</sup> centuries A.D., the Svans controlled the “road of the Misimians,” an important trade-route connecting Sebastopolis (Dioscurias) to the Silk Road by way of the Kodori gorge and the Klukhori pass (Bagaturia, 2003). According to Strabo (<i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.16), this route was already in use in the 1<sup>st</sup> century A.D.: “Dioscurias is . . . the common emporium of the tribes who are situated above it and in its vicinity.” Since the Kodori valley is now inhabited by Abkhaz speakers, this provides further evidence of the former westward extent of Svan territories. St. Andrew the First-Called is believed to have traveled this route from Dioscurias into the North Caucasus (Khalvashi, 2009). </div>
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During the 6<sup>th</sup> century A.D., “a Persian general campaigning in Colchis reported to his king that the Scythians could pass from the north through Suania. The route seems to have followed the River Enguri, the ancient Chobus, from its headwaters down to the Black Sea. Through Misimia there was a route dominated by the fort at Buchlous. Of particular importance was the Tsebel’da valley in the mountains above Sukhumi, through which three routes from the northern steppe converged on their way to the sea. The Tsebel’da valley was heavily fortified by the sixth century AD at the latest, with its principal stronghold at Tzibile. Earlier the Roman fortification established at Sebastopolis under the Principate seems to have owed much of its importance to its location at the southern end of these routes through the Tsebel’da valley” (Braund, 1994, pp. 46-47).<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Classical writers use the designation Soanes (Suani, <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Souanoi/, Soua/noi</span>) in reference to the closely-related Svans of the Inguri valley (where they still dwell today). Upper Svaneti is the highest inhabited region in the Caucasus. The Svans are linguistically and culturally the most conservative Kartvelian ethnic group. According to Toumanoff (1963, p. 57), the Svans “appear to have been related to the Tabalians.” (1963, p. 57). Though geographically isolated, the Svans have always been formidable warriors and have exercised significant cultural and political influence on the lowland Mingrelians and Georgians. Strabo’s description of the Soanes is extremely interesting: “Near them [the Phtheirophagi] are the Soanes, who are no less filthy, but superior to them in power, —indeed, one might almost say that they are foremost in courage and power. At any rate, they are masters of the peoples around them, and hold possession of the heights of the Caucasus above Dioscurias. They have a king and a council of three hundred men; and they assemble, according to report, an army of two hundred thousand; for the whole of the people are a fighting force, though unorganised. It is said that in their country gold is carried down by the mountain-torrents, and that the barbarians obtain it by means of perforated troughs and fleecy skins, and that this is the origin of the myth of the golden fleece. . . . The Soanes use remarkable poisons for the points of their missiles; and even people who are not wounded by the poisoned missiles suffer from their odor” (<i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.19).</div>
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A third Svanic polity, the kingdom of Scymnia, occupied the district of Takveri (mod. Lechkhumi), southeast of Suania. The Scymni (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Skumnoi/</span>), an ethnic group closely related to the Svans, are now extinct.</div>
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The valley of the river Charieis (mod. Khobi river) was occupied by the Saltiae, another Kartvelian tribe. Pliny (<i>Naturalis historia</i> VI.iv.14) notes that “the Saltiae tribe were formerly called Phthirophagi” (<i>gens Saltiae antiquis Phthirophagi dicti</i>). Writing somewhat earlier, Strabo states that<b> </b>“Among the tribes which come together at Dioscurias are the Phthirophagi [i.e. “flea-eaters”], who have received their name from their squalor and their filthiness” (<i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.19). By the first century A.D., some of the Sanni had also settled along the Charieis river (Pliny, <i>Naturalis historia</i> VI.iv.14).</div>
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The plain of the Chobus (mod. Inguri) and Phasis (mod. Rioni) rivers comprised Colchis proper. This heavily-populated region was inhabited by a multitude of Kartvelian tribes. It must be understood that the peoples designated as Colchi, Sanni, Heniochi, and Lazi each comprised a multiplicity of tribes whose specific names have been lost in most cases. As we have noted, the Heniochi had extended their influence far to the north, though their principal settlements lay along the Anatolian coast. According to Heraclides Ponticus (<i>De rebus publicis</i> xviii), the Phasis was originally inhabited by the cannibalistic Heniochi, who were later replaced by the more hospitable Colchi. Pliny refers to “the tribes of the Heniochi with a variety of names” (<i>Naturalis historia</i> VI.iv.14). The Lazi, too, had penetrated far to the north, where they exercised hegemony over the Abasgi and gave their name to the town of Palaea Lazica (in the vicinity of modern Tuapse). The Sanni had also penetrated northward into Colchis by Greco-Roman times. Pliny (<i>Naturalis historia</i> VI.iv.14) notes the presence of “another tribe, the Sanni” dwelling next to the Saltiae along the Charieis river (mod. Khobi river). The Colchi (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Ko/lxoi</span>) themselves were divided into “countless tribes” (Apollonius Rhodius, <i>Argonautica</i> II.1204-05). One of these, the Phasiani (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Fasianoi/</span>) occupied the marshy district outside the Milesian colony of Phasis (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Fa/siv</span>; mod. Poti), founded <i>circa</i> 600 B.C. The Colchi inhabited the basin of the Phasis river, with territories extending inland as far as the Likhi range, which separated them from the Iberians. Though technically subject to the kingdom of Iberia, the kingdom of Colchis was eventually detached from Pontus and reduced to a Roman province (63 A.D.). Appian (<i>Historia Romana</i> XII.iii.15) describes the Colchians as “a very warlike people.” </div>
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Though centrally organized, the kingdom of Iberia to the east was also subdivided among numerous kinglets (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">skh=ptouxoi</span>) and tribal units. In contrast to Colchis, Iberia fell within the Persian sphere of influence both politically and culturally.</div>
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The Colchian plain terminated in the Moschian mountains to the south. The mountainous region around the southeast corner of the Black Sea was also inhabited by numerous Kartvelian tribes. Like the Circassian coast, this region was notorious for piracy. </div>
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The Camaritae (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Kamari=tai</span>) were a sea-going people who inhabited “populous districts” along the coast between Apsarus and the Phasis (Ammianus Marcellinus, <i>Res gestae</i> XXII.8.24). They took their name from the small vessels (<i>camarae</i>) which they used in their piratical expeditions. “Since there were no good anchorages, they carried the boats up on the shores into the forests where they lived and tilled the poor soil” (Hannestad, 2007, p. 88). Appian tells an interesting story which has some relevance in this connection: “His [Mithridates’] own ship sprang a leak and he went aboard a small pirate craft although his friends tried to dissuade him. The pirates landed him safely at Sinope” (<i>Historia Romana</i> XII.xi.78). The great Roman fortress of Apsarus (mod. Gonio, just south of Batumi), with its 22 towers, was established in this region during the first century A.D., apparently with a view to suppressing piracy and bringing the area under Roman control. According to Braund (1994), “low-intensity piracy” was endemic to the Black Sea, but increased during the period of Roman rule, until “the first serious onslaughts were to come in the middle of the third century AD” (p. 5).</div>
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Arrian (<i>Periplus</i> 7.1) states that the Ophis river (modern Istala Dere) formed the border between “Thiannike” (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Qiannikh/</span>; Tzannica) and Colchis. Like the Colchi, Heniochi, and Lazi, the Sanni (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Sa/nnoi</span>, <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Sa/noi</span>,<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;"> Tza/noi</span>) were divided into numerous tribes, some of which had migrated northward into Colchis. We have already noted the presence of Sanni along the Charieis river, along with Arrian’s claim that the Drilae were the same as the Sanni. Strabo (<i>Geographica</i> XII.iii.18) similarly claims that the Macrones were known is his day as “Sanni.” The situation is further complicated by Pliny’s reference to the “Charioteer Sanni” (<i>gens Sannorum Heniochorum</i>) dwelling east of Trapezus (<i>Naturalis historia</i> VI.iv.12); suggesting some degree of assimilation among the major Kartvelian tribes. According to Braund (1994), the terms “Colchi,” “Lazi,” and “Heniochi” “were often applied with no great precision” (p. 14).</div>
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The Lazi (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">La/zoi, La=zai</span>) were closely related to the Sanni, and (as we have already noted) had ancient connections to the Circassian coast. The Lazi emerged in large numbers from the mountains of northeast Anatolia (<i>circa</i> 100/75 B.C.), and spread northward, where they initially settled along the Phasis but later spread throughout much of Colchis (Bredow & Savvidis, 2007). Arrian (2<sup>nd</sup> century) mentions that the king of the Lazi in his day was Malassas, a client of Trajan (<i>Periplus</i> 11.2). The Lazi were also given to piracy (Allen, 1971).</div>
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The Zydritae (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Zudri/tai</span>), another Kartvelian people, dwelt along the coast just south of the Roman fortress of Apsarus. Unique among the peoples of this district, the Zydritae did not recognize Roman hegemony but were clients of the king of Iberia, far to the east (Arrian, <i>Periplus</i> XI.2). This phenomenon lends support to the idea that the Iberian kings enjoyed titular sovereignty over the other Kartvelians. The Ampreutae mentioned by Pliny (<i>Naturalis historia</i> VI.iv.12) may be the same people as the Zydritae.</div>
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Strabo (1<sup>st</sup> century A.D.) claims that the people known in his day as the Appaïtae (<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">’</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Appai=tai</span>) had formerly been called Cercetae (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Kerki=tai</span>) (<i>Geographica</i> XII.iii.18). This statement provides further evidence of a pre-Kartvelian migration of Northwest Caucasian peoples through the region. </div>
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Further inland, the Taochi (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Ta/oxoi</span>) were a mountain people inhabiting the Glaucus valley of northern Armenia, where they had several fortified places. These were the descendants of the ancient Daiaeni (Diaueḫe) mentioned in Assyrian and Urartian records. Though independent of the Persian empire, the Taochi had occasionally served in the Persian army as mercenaries (Xenophon, <i>Anabasis </i>IV.vi.18) (Brentjes, 2007).</div>
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In classical times, the Moschi<b> </b>(<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Mo/sxoi, Me/sxoi</span>) inhabited the “Moschic mountains” (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Mosxika/</span> <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">oÂrh</span>; the Meskheti range, part of the Lesser Caucasus). This was another ancient Kartvelian tribe, the Meshech of the Old Testament and the Mushki of Assyrian sources. Unlike the Taochi, the Moschi were subject to the Persian empire, and were included in the 19<sup>th</sup> satrapy. According to Strabo (<i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.17), the Moschian region was the locus of an important Kartvelian cultic site: “In the Moschian country lies the temple of Leucothea, founded by Phrixus, and the oracle of Phrixus, where a ram is never sacrificed; it was once rich, but it was robbed in our time by Pharnaces, and a little later by Mithridates of Pergamum.” This term apparently referred primarily to a geographical district and only secondarily to its inhabitants, for Strabo also states that “the Moschian country, in which is situated the temple, is divided into three parts: one part is held by the Colchians, another by the Iberians, and another by the Armenians” (Strabo, <i>Geographica</i> XI.ii.18). </div>
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Greco-Roman sources reveal that in classical times, Kartvelian tribes inhabited the entire Anatolian coast as far west as Amisus (mod. Samsun), along with the adjoining Pontic mountains. This was a mountainous and heavily forested region, inhabited by numerous Kartvelian tribes known for their extreme savagery. This was the Kartvelian cultural heartland, as the Kartvelians were still in the process of migrating from Anatolia into the Caucasus in Greco-Roman times.</div>
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Traveling southeastward from Apsarus and the domains of the Zydritae, one entered the historical territories of the Byzeres (Byzares, Buxeri; <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Bu/zhrev</span>, <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Bou/shrev</span>), who appear to have migrated far westward during Greco-Roman times. It is interesting to note that Valerius Flaccus (<i>Argonautica</i> V.152) alludes to the “nomad Byzeres” (<i>Byzeresque vagi</i>). The mountains behind them were occupied by the Saspires (Sapires; <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Sa/peirev</span>). A comparison of Apollonius Rhodius (3<sup>rd</sup> century B.C.) with Ammianus Marcellinus (4<sup>th</sup> century A.D.) suggests that this tribe also migrated westward, perhaps in association with the Byzeres. Toumanoff (1963) suggests a possible connection between this ethnonym and the Subarians of pre-Sumerian Mesopotamia (p. 61n). The Saspires were originally associated with the Iberians and appear to have emerged from the Lesser Caucasus to the east (Diakonoff, 1984).</div>
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Next along the coast were the “vast tribes” of the Bechires (Bechiri; <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Be/xeirev, Be/xeiroi</span>) (Apollonius Rhodius, <i>Argonautica</i> II.394). According to the anonymous <i>Periplus Ponti Euxini</i> (9r35; 5<sup>th</sup> century), their territories were occupied in later times by the Colchi—another instance of westward migration. </div>
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The Heniochi (<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">‘</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Hni/oxoi</span>) were the most famous of the tribes of Colchis, and were reputed to be the most ancient of them. The name simply means “charioteers,” and arises from the myth that this nation was “founded by Amphitus and Cercius of Sparta, the charioteers of Castor and Pollux” (Ammianus Marcellinus, <i>Res gestae</i> XXII.8.24). We have already noted their ancient connection to the Phasis region, as well as their association with the district around the Greek city of Dioscurias. Their principal area of residence, however, was in the vicinity of the Greek city of Rhizaeum on the Anatolian coast (modern Rize, about halfway between Trapezus and Apsarus). According to Strabo (<i>Geographica</i> XI.2.13), the Heniochi were ruled by four kings at the time of Mithridates’ expedition through their territories (1<sup>st</sup> century B.C.). In Arrian’s time, however (2<sup>nd</sup> century A.D.), both the Heniochi and the neighboring Machelones were ruled by a single king, Anchialus (<i>Periplus</i> 7.3). According to the fifth-century <i>Periplus Ponti Euxini</i> (9v3), this federated state was known as Ekcheirieis (<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">’</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Ekxeiriei=v</span>), and its territories extended from the Ophis river (just east of Trapezus, recognized as the border between Tzanica and Colchis) to the Archabis river (just west of Apsarus). Arrian states that the palace of Anchialus was located on the Prytanis river (modern Büyük Dere), which flows into the Black Sea southwest of Apsarus. According to Dio Cassius (<i>Historia Romana</i> LVIII.19.2), king Anchialus paid a state visit to Trajan at Satala, on the eve of the Roman emperor’s campaign against the Parthians (115 A.D.).</div>
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The Machelones (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Maxelw=nev, Maxe/lonev, Maxelw=noi, Maxu=lai</span>), also subject to Anchialus, were another Sannic tribe, closely related to the neighboring Macrones. They are probably the same as the “Machorones” mentioned by Pliny as living between the Ophis and Prytanis rivers (<i>Naturalis Historia</i> VI.4.11). Ptolemy (2<sup>nd</sup> century A.D.) mentions a town of Mechlessus (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Mexlesso/v</span>) in the interior, near the border of Colchis (<i>Geographia</i> V.10.6). The so-called <i>Res Gestae Divi Saporis</i>, an inscription on the Ka‘ba-ye Zartosht near Persepolis which commemorates the achievements of the Sassanian emperor Shapur I (reigned 241-272), uses the term Machelonia as a designation for Colchis as a whole.</div>
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The mountains behind the Heniochi were inhabited by a number of savage tribes, including the Cissii, the Mares (who had formed part of the 19<sup>th</sup> satrapy of the Persian empire), and the Heptacometae (<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">‘</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Eptakwmh=tai</span>). The name of this tribe (meaning “seven locks”) implies that they had the custom of dressing their hair in seven braids. This custom probably had astrological associations. </div>
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Along the coast to the west of the Ophis river, in the vicinity of the Greek city (and Roman fortress) of Hyssus, were the Macrones, described by Valerius Flaccus as inhabiting “lofty lairs” (<i>Argonautica</i> V.151). According to Herodotus (<i>Historiae</i> III.94), they were included in the 19<sup>th</sup> satrapy of the Persian Empire, along with the Moschi, Mossynoeci, Tibareni, and Mares. Herodotus also claims that they had adopted the practice of circumcision from the Colchi. Both Strabo (<i>Geographica</i> XII.iii.18) and Stephanus of Byzantium (6<sup>th</sup> century A.D.) claim that the name “Macrones” had been replaced by “Sanni” (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Sa/nnoi</span>) in their day. Pliny the Elder (1<sup>st</sup> century A.D.), however, speaks of the Sanni and the Macrones as two distinct peoples. It is possible that the Macrones are the ancestors of the modern Mingrelians (Geo. <i>megreli</i>, Ming. <i>margali</i>; the same root is seen in Egrisi, the Georgian designation for Colchis in late antiquity). [Procopius re. conversion by Justinian in 520s] </div>
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East of Hyssus was situated the important Greek city of Trapezus (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Trapezou=v</span>; Trebizond, Tk. Trabzon, Geo. T’amt’ra), a Milesian colony founded in 756 B.C. In the hinterland of Trapezus dwelt the Drilae (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Dri/lai, Dri/llai</span>), a savage Kartvelian tribe which was chronically at war with the Trapezuntians. The country of the Drilae was “mountainous and difficult to traverse and its inhabitants the most warlike of all that dwell upon the Euxine” (Xenophon, <i>Anabasis</i>, V.ii.2-27). Arrian (2<sup>nd</sup> century A.D.) claims that Xenophon’s Drilae still existed in his day but were known as “Sanni.” He states that “these too are very warlike, even to this day, and are hostile to the Trapezuntines, live in fortified places, and are a tribe without a king. They were also formerly liable for tribute to the Romans, although, being pirates, they are not anxious to pay their tribute” (<i>Periplus</i> 11.1-2). Other Kartvelian tribes in the hinterland of Trapezus included a branch of the Colchi (Xenophon, Anabasis IV.viii.8-9, 22-23) and the Scytheni (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Skuqinoi/</span>), whose territories were separated from the Macrones by a river (Xenophon, <i>Anabasis</i> IV.viii.1).</div>
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The Macrocephali (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Makroke/faloi</span>, lit. “long-heads”) were a mysterious people associated with the Kartvelians. They occupied an extensive mountainous tract behind the Greek cities of Philocalia, Tripolis, and Cerasus. Their name arises from their unusual practice of cranial deformation. Hippocrates (<i>circa</i> 400 B.C.) gives a fascinating account of this, which is worth quoting <i>in extenso</i>: “I will begin with the Macrocephali. There is no other race at all with heads like theirs. Originally custom was chiefly responsible for the length of the head, but now custom is reinforced by nature. Those that have the longest heads they consider the noblest, and the custom is as follows. As soon as a child is born, they remodel its head with their hands, while it is still soft and the body tender, and force it to increase in length by applying bandages and suitable appliances, which spoil the roundness of the head and increase its length. . . . At the present time long-headedness is less common than it was, for owing to intercourse with other men the custom is less prevalent.” (<i>De aëre, aquis et locis</i>, xiv) Minchin (1858) notes that skulls with deformities matching Hippocrates’ description have been recovered from ancient burials in the vicinity of Kerch (eastern Crimea), and hypothesizes that these ancient people had come to associate elongation of the cranium with superior intelligence, so that this custom represented an attempt to obtain this result by artificial means. </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>All of this data suggests an unusual situation indeed. One possibility is that the Macrocephali were the remnant of a non-Kartvelian people, who were in the process of assimilation to the Kartvelians in classical times and subsequently disappeared from history. Minchin’s reference to the discovery of similarly deformed skulls in the Crimea would support such an hypothesis. Another possibility is that the Macrocephali were a special “sacred tribe” among the Kartvelians, as suggested by Hippocrates’ comment that “those that have the longest heads they consider the noblest,” and by Pomponius Mela’s observation (<i>De chorographia</i> I.107) that they were “less savage” (<i>minus feri</i>) than other tribes in their vicinity.</div>
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The<b> </b>Mosynoeci (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Mosu/noikoi, Mossu/noikoi</span>; “dwellers in wooden towers”) were an important Kartvelian tribe mentioned by many classical authors, dwelling in the hinterland of the Milesian colony of Cerasus, in the vicinity of the “sacred mount” (Apollonius Rhodius, <i>Argonautica</i> II.1015). Pomponius Mela (De Chorographia I.106) relates that the Mosynoeci kept their kings confined in fetters, punishing them with a full day of starvation each time they erred in their decrees. Avienus (4<sup>th</sup> century, <i>Descriptio orbis terrae</i> 946) refers to the Mosynoeci as the “agile Wooden tribe” (<i>pernix Durateum gens</i>; cf. Crastonus Placentinus, 1481/1861, p. 14).</div>
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The Philyres (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Fi/lurev</span>) inhabited an island and parts of the adjoining mainland in the vicinity of Zephyrios point, between Cerasus and Tripolis (Braund & Sinclair, 2000). Their territory were thus entirely surrounded by the domains of the Mosynoeci. This island was supposed to have been the place where Cronos, in the form of a stallion, seduced Philyra, the daughter of Oceanus, begetting the Centaur Chiron (Apollonius Rhodius, <i>Argonautica</i> II.1231-61; Valerius Flaccus, <i>Argonautica</i> V.140-153). The Philyres received their name from their association with that myth. Their island also had ancient associations with the Amazons: “In it the Queens of the Amazons, Otrere and Antiope, built a stone temple of Ares what time they went forth to war. And beyond the island and opposite mainland dwell the Philyres” (II.360-406).</div>
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West of the Mosynoeci dwelt the Tibareni (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Tibarhnoi/</span>), whom we have already had occasion to mention in connection with the biblical Tubal. The Greek city of Cotyora was founded (5<sup>th</sup> century B.C.) in the territory of the Tibareni (Xenophon, <i>Anabasis</i> V.v.3), as were the Hellenistic cities of Phasidane and Polemonium. He notes that in comparison to the Mosynoeci, their country “was much more level and had fortresses upon the seacoast that were less strong” (V.v.2). Apollonius Rhodius refers to “the Tibareni, rich in sheep” (<i>Argonautica</i> II.360-406), while Valerius Flaccus mentions “the green lakes of the Tibarenes” (<i>Argonautica</i> V.140-153). </div>
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We have already had occasion to mention the Chalybes (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Xa/lubev, Xa/luboi, Xa/ldoi, Xaldai=oi</span>), who dwelt west of the Tibareni, with territories extending as far as the Halys river. There was also an outlying group of them settled to the east of the Tibareni (<i>Anabasis </i>V.v.2). As we previously noted, the Chalybes were subject to the Mosynoeci and were credited in antiquity with the invention of ferrous metallurgy; since their land was unsuitable for agriculture or pasturage, they devoted themselves to mining and ironworking (e.g. Apollonius Rhodius, <i>Argonautica</i> II.374-76: “the Chalybes, most wretched of men, possess a soil rugged and unyielding—sons of toil, they busy themselves with working iron”; II.1001-08; Valerius Flaccus, <i>Argonautica</i> V.140-43: “At the dead of night they hear from the closed caverns of the earth the unresting labour of the Chalybes. . . . they ply their weary tools; loud rings the travail of those hands that first created war, the scourge of all the earth”). The Milesian colony of Amisus (mod. Samsun) was founded in their territory (<i>circa</i> 750 B.C.). East of Amisus (and also in the territory of the Chalybes) was the valley of the Thermodon river, famous in antiquity for its association with the Amazons.</div>
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The Chalybes were the westernmost of the Kartvelian tribes. West of the Halys river lay the region of Paphlagonia, which extended westward to the Parthenius river (mod. <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Bartın Çayı).</span> The Paphlagonians were an ancient people of uncertain ethnic affinities. They are mentioned in Greek sources as early as Homer, who lists them among the allies of Troy: “And the Paphlagonians did Pylaemenes of vigorous heart lead from the land of the Eneti” (<i>Iliad</i> II.851-52). The Eneti appear to have been a subdivision of the Paphlagonians, and were believed to have migrated from Asia Minor to the head of the Adriatic at the conclusion of the Trojan War, where they became known as the Veneti (Strabo, <i>Geographica</i> XII.iii.25). Although Venetic was one of the Italic dialects (and hence related to Latin), the original Venetic language is believed to have been non-Indo-European.</div>
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There are three main views as to the linguistic and cultural affiliation of the Paphlagonians. Cramer (1832) regards them “as being of the same race with the Bithyni, Mysi, and Phryges, that is, they were a Thracian people. Theopompus, indeed, as we learn from Strabo, classed them with the Mariandyni and Bithyni. (XII. P. 541.) Another circumstance which seems further to confirm this opinion is the name of Cotys, which is given by Xenophon to one of their chiefs, (Hell. IV. 1.) and which is so frequently found to occur in the nomenclature of Thracian sovereigns” (p. 217). If this is correct, then the Paphlagonians migrated from Europe to Asia Minor at the time of the Trojan War and their language, like Armenian, was part of the Thraco-Phrygian branch of Indo-European. A second possibility is that the Paphlagonians were the descendants of the Kashkai, who (as we have already noted) were a Northwest Caucasian people. A number of facts tend to support this hypothesis: first, Hittite sources confirm that the entire district between the Halys and Parthenius rivers was inhabited by the Kashkai during the second millennium B.C.; second, the region immediately to the south of Paphlagonia was originally occupied by the Hattians, another pre-Indo-European people whose language is believed to be connected to Northwest Caucasian. A third possibility is that the Paphlagonians were the descendants of an Anatolian people, since the region was known to the Hittites as Pala and was inhabited by speakers of Palaic, an Anatolian language related to Hittite (Diakonoff, 1984). This appears to be the least likely of the three hypotheses, however, since Pala was overrun during the 15<sup>th</sup> century B.C. by the Kashkai, who apparently migrated into the region from further west. </div>
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The important Milesian colony of Sinope was founded in Paphlagonian territory (631/630 B.C.), on the site of the old Hittite port of Sinuwa. The city was named for the Amazon Sinope, the mythical ancestor of the Leucosyri (Elderkin, 1935), and became an important entrepôt for goods from the upper Euphrates. Prior to Greek settlement, the promontory of Sinope was inhabited by Cimmerians (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Kimme//rioi</span>) (Herodotus, <i>Historiae</i> IV.12). Pseudo-Scymnus (<i>Periegesis ad Nicomedem regem</i> 992-993), in fact, reports that Abron ( <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">ÂAbrwn</span>), the leader of the Milesian colonists, was slain by the Cimmerians (Summerer, 2007). The Cimmerians are to be identified with the biblical Gomer, the eldest son of Japheth (Genesis 10), and were initially associated with the region north of the Black Sea, between the Tyras (Don) and Tanaïs (Dniester) rivers. They gave their name to the Cimmerian Bosporus (eastern Crimea / Strait of Kerch). </div>
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The Cimmerians are mentioned as early as Homer: “She came to deep-flowing Oceanus, that bounds the Earth, where is the land and city of the Cimmerians, wrapped in mist and cloud. Never does the bright sun look down on them with his rays either when he mounts the starry heaven or when he turns again to earth from heaven, but baneful night is spread over wretched mortals.” (<i>Odyssey</i> XI.13-19) This passage implies that the Cimmerian homeland lay far to the north, perhaps along the Baltic or the White Sea. The Cimmerians may or may not have been an (Iranian? Thracian?) Indo-European speaking people, but in any case (like the Hurrian Mitanni) appear to have had an Indo-European ruling class.</div>
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The “Cimmerian invasion” (7<sup>th</sup> century B.C.) greatly disrupted the Ancient Near East. By the time the Cimmerians (<i>Gimirri</i>) first appear in Assyrian records (714 B.C.), they had migrated far to the southeast and inhabited the land of <i>Gamir</i>, in the vicinity of Lake Van. As they passed through the Caucasus, they appear to have brought about the collapse of the kingdom of Æa at around that same time. The Cimmerians repeatedly fought the Assyrians and also contributed to the collapse of the kingdom of Urartu. They defeated King Midas of Phrygia (695 B.C.) and King Gyges of Lydia (654 or 652 B.C.), destroying both kingdoms. They appear to have settled mainly in Paphlagonia and Cappadocia. After their defeat by Alyattes II of Lydia (626 B.C.), the Cimmerians are seldom mentioned in historical sources. They are, however, mentioned by the astrologer Dorotheus in a hexameter verse preserved by Hephaestio (<i>Apotelesmatica</i> I.1.180):</div>
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Tw|= d u¸po Kimmeri/h te/tatai xqw\n hÓ pane/rhmov.</div>
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Here, the Cimmerians, along with several other nations, are said to be ruled by the sign of Capricorn.</div>
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South of Paphlagonia lay the region of Cappadocia. In classical times, </div>
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Cappadocia was inhabited by the Leucosyri (“White Syrians”). According to classical sources (Diodorus Siculus, <i>Bibliotheca historica</i> iv.72; <i>Schol. ad Apollonium Rhodium</i> II.46), Syros, the progenitor of the Syrians (i.e. Leucosyri), was the child of Apollo by the Amazon Sinope (Elderkin, 1935). Since Cappadocia corresponds more or less to the heartland of the old Hittite empire, it appears likely that the Leucosyri were Indo-European descendants of the Hittites and other Anatolian peoples. However, the region appears to have had ancient associations with the Kartvelians (Meshech / Mushki) as well: According to Philostorgius (<i>Historia ecclesiastica</i> IX.12), “Caesarea [the residence of the kings of Cappadocia] was originally called Mazaca [<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Ma/zaka</span>], a name derived from Mosoch, the ancestor of the Cappadocians.” Josephus makes a similar statement: “the Meschenians, founded by Meschos, are to-day called Cappadocians, but a clear trace of their ancient designation survives; for they still have a city of the name of Mazaca” (<i>Antiquitates Judaicae</i> I.vi.125).</div>
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West of Paphlagonia, extending as far as the Hellespont, lay the region of Bithynia (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Biquni/a</span>). The Bithynians, like the Phryians and Mysians, were a branch of the Thracians who migrated across the Hellespont subsequent to the fall of Troy (1183 B.C.), settling the region north of the Troad and eastward to the Parthenius river and displacing the previous inhabitants, the Mariandyni (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Mariandunoi/</span>), to the northeast. The Bithynians originally comprised two related peoples: the Thyni (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Qunoi/</span>) and the Bithyni (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Biqunoi/</span>). These two nations eventually amalgamated and were subsequently known as Bithyni.</div>
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This completes our <i>periplus</i> of much of the Black Sea littoral. It is clear from this that the Kartvelian territories were formerly much more extensive, and that the Kartvelian tribes had a profound cultural influence on much of Anatolia. The picture that emerges from this suggests a great migration from west to east, perhaps connected to a period of political instability following the fall of Troy (1183 B.C.). Both the collapse of the Hittite Empire (<i>circa</i> 1180 B.C.) and the invasion of Egypt by the “Sea Peoples” (1178 B.C.) appear to have resulted from this same disturbance, known to historians as the “Bronze Age Collapse.” The initial Kartvelian expansion appears to have penetrated at least far as the Circassian coast, perhaps even to the Crimea; they were subsequently displaced from these territories by the Northwest Caucasians (Circassians and others).</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>Christian Georgia</b></span><b><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></b></div>
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Zoroastrianism remained the dominant religion of the upper classes until the arrival of Christianity. According to legend, the Apostles drew lots to determine which nations each of them was to evangelize, and the lot of Colchis fell to the Virgin Mary. Unable to fulfill this mission herself, she delegated it to St. Andrew the First-Called, who made four missionary journeys to the region, even passing through Svaneti and penetrating the North Caucasus (Khalvashi, 2009). Andrew’s preaching appears to have had little effect, though it is reported that on one occasion while he was preaching, a Mingrelian in the audience bit off his finger (Movs<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ē</span>s Dasxuranc‘i, 1961, p. 29n). “It is from Andrew’s founding of the Christian Church in west Georgia that the Georgian Patriarch claims autocephalous descent directly from the Apostles of Christ” (Mangum, 2011, ¶7). According to Zampi (1711), “<i>On tient par tradition que le glorieux apôtre saint André prêcha la foi aux Abcas; qu’il fut en Scythie, qu’il passa en Grèce et en Epire, puis chez les Sodianes et chez les Suictiens, et que pour certain il s’arrêta enfin chez les Abcas, qui font une partie de la Colchide</i>” (p. 196).</div>
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Another of the Apostles, St. Simon the Zealot, is supposed to have accompanied St. Andrew on one of these journeys (A.D. 55), but remained behind to preach the gospel in Abkhazia, where he was martyred by the Romans (Abkhazia – Republic of Abkhazia, 2011).</div>
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St. Matthias, “the thirteenth apostle,” also went to Colchis, where he was crucified by the Romans. According to the <i>Synopsis</i> of Dorotheus of Tyre (d. <i>circa</i> 362 A.D.), <i>Matthias in interiore Æthiopia </i>[sic],<i> ubi Hyssus maris portus et Phasis fluvius est, hominibus barbaris et carnivoris praedicavit Evangelium. Mortuus est autem in Sebastopoli, ibique prope templum Solis sepultus.</i> (Saint Matthias, 2011). The grave of St. Matthias can still be seen inside the extremely well-preserved Roman fortress of Apsarus (modern Gonio, just south of Batumi). It is shaded by a huge pear tree (the pear tree was venerated throughout the Caucasus during pre-Christian times and remains an important religious symbol). </div>
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In addition, there is a tradition that the Apostles Bartholomew and Thaddeus visited Iberia and preached there. Among the Christian relics that supposedly found their way to Georgia are the Mantle of the Prophet Elijah (brought there by Jews who settled at Mtskheta during the 6<sup>th</sup> century B.C.); the Seamless Coat of Christ (brought to Mtskheta by a Jewish visitor to Jerusalem who obtained it by lot; now buried beneath the floor of Svet’icxoveli Cathedral); and the robe of the Virgin Mary (now in the museum of the Dadiani Palace at Zugdidi) (Mangum, 2011). </div>
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Giuseppe Maria Zampi gives an interesting account of this relic: “<i>quand les Turcs prirent Constantinople, il y eut plusieurs saints prelats, qui, pour se soustraire à la tyrannie mahométane, s’enfuirent en Mingrélie, et se dispersèrent dans les pays voisins. On raconte qu’alors il vint dans la Colchide un archevêque qui emportoit avec lui un morceau de la vraie croix de la grandeur d’une palme . . . et une chemise qu’on dit être de la Sainte-Vierge; nos pères l’ont vue. La toile en est de couleur tirant sur le jaune, parsemée de fleurs çà et là, brodées à l’aiguille. . . . Je l’ai vue aussi dans l’église de Copis, où elle est gardée . . . La chemise dont j’ai parlé, est dans une casse d’ébène, ornée d’ouvrages à fleurs d’argent, dans laquelle il y a de plus un petit cadre, contenant quelques poils de la barbe du Sauveur, et des cordes dont il fut fouetté. La cassette est scélée du sceau du prince</i>” (1711, pp. 233-34).</div>
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In 298 A.D., after a period of paying tribute to the Sassanids, Iberia was “brought back under Roman sovereignty” (Plontke-Lüning, 2007b, p. 695).</div>
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At the beginning of the Christian era, the princes of the Lazi ruled the southwestern corner of the Black Sea (modern <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Č’aneti). </span>Around 300 A.D., the various Laz principalities coalesced to form the new kingdom of Lazica. Around this same time, a Christian bishopric was established at Pityus (Pitsunda, Geo. Bi<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">č’vinta), in Laz territory. Stratophilus (a.k.a. Patrophilus), the bishop </span>of Pityus, participated in the Council of Nicaea in A.D. 325. </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Iberians, meanwhile, were converted to Christianity in the year 319 A.D. by St. Nino, a Christian slave-girl from Cappadocia. Her preaching was attended by numerous miraculous events, including the miracle of the “floating pillar” (<i>svet’icxoveli</i>), a huge tree-trunk which stood up of its own accord to become the central pillar of the new church at Mtskheta (this probably represents a Christianization of the tree-cult, which is widespread in the Caucasus). Georgia thus became the second nation to officially adopt Christianity, following the conversion of Armenia in A.D. 301.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Zampi (1711) offers an interesting account of this event: “<i>Ce prince exécuta tout exactement. Il abjura ses idoles, il exhorta tous ses sujets à en faire de même, et il se mit à construire un temple magnifique sur plusieurs colonnes. Mais comme on en eut élevé deux, et qu’on vouloit en élever une troisième, il ne fut jamais possible de la dresser; et tous ceux qui y travailloient, et ceux qui étoient présens, se retirèrent tout-à-fait étonnés et confus. L’esclave resta seule la nuit dans l’église, et obtint de Dieu, par ses prières, que la colonne se dresseroit et placeroit d’elle-même au lieu où elle étoit destinée. Les ouvriers étant tous revenus le matin, ils furent extrêmement surpris de voir la colonne en place. Cela servit au peuple à le confirmer davantage dans la foi chrétienne</i>” (Zampi, 1711, p. 200).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The first Christian king of Iberia, St. Mirian III, founded the Chosroid dynasty (a branch of the Iranian house of Mihr<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span>n). He reigned from 284 to 361 and was thus a contemporary of Constantine (Toumanoff, 1963). In 370 A.D., Iberia (a Roman client-state at that time) was temporarily divided into two kingdoms, with Sauromaces (a Roman client) ruling the part west of the Kura and Aspacures (a Persian vassal) the part east of the Kura (Ammianus Marcellinus, <i>Res gestae</i> XVII.12.17; Plontke-Lüning, 2007b).</div>
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With the rise of the Sassanian empire, a new dynamic arose in the region, as both the Byzantines and the Persians sought to dominate the South Caucasus, establishing the client states of Lazica in the West (tributary to the Byzantines) and Iberia in the East (tributary to Persia). The so-called “Armazi script” was a version of the Aramaic alphabet used in Iberian inscriptions (often bilingual Greek-Aramaic) of the 2<sup>nd</sup>-3<sup>rd</sup> centuries A.D.</div>
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Later, in the middle of the 5<sup>th</sup> century, the Lazi succeeded in conquering the entire Roman province of Colchis, which was subsequently known as Lazica (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Lazikh/</span>; Georgian Egrisi). Lazica was clearly a multi-ethnic state. Agathias (<i>Historiae</i> II.18.4) states that the Lazi were formerly known as Colchi and that they were in fact the same people; this suggests that the rise of Lazica represents a dynastic shift rather than an ethnic displacement. </div>
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The Lazi established their capital at Archaeopolis on the Techuri river, and established their hegemony over the the Kartvelian Suani, Misimiani, and Scymni, as well as the Abkhazian Abasci and Apsilae. The first Christian king of Lazica was Gubazes I (mid-5<sup>th</sup> century) (Toumanoff, 1963; von Bredow & Savvidis, 2007; Plontke-Lüning, 2007c). “The constituent peoples of the Lazian empire occupied a broad band of territory to the north of Lazica, particularly well-placed to control the passes through the Caucasus” (Braund, 1994, p. 279). </div>
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In the first half of the 5<sup>th</sup> century, even “the rulers of the Suani began to receive their royal regalia from the Lazian king, acting for the Byzantine emperor” (Braund 1994, p. 278-79). “The land of the Suani, broadly modern Svaneti, constituted a problem in Persian-Byzantine relations in the sixth century that was out of proportion to its size. Its significance lay primarily in its strategic position in the mountains of northern Transcaucasia, commanding routes by which raiders from the North Caucasian Foreland crossed into Transcaucasia and beyond. Moreover, Suania offered a base from which the Persians could launch an attack against Lazica. It seems also to have had gold-mines” (p. 311).</div>
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Throughout most of its history, Lazica was a Byzantine client-state. In 523, king Tsate of Lazica “installed a Byzantine garrison in the mighty fortress of Petra (Tsikhisdziri), overlooking the Black Sea between Batumi and Kobuleti” (Lang, 1966, p. 99). During the reign of Justinian, Persian attempts to gain control of the region resulted in the great Lazic War (541-562). “This dynasty is last heard of with Tzathus II, installed in 555; and after the Romano-Iranian treaty of 561, Lazica tends to disappear from the sources” Toumanoff, 1963, p. 255. Lazica remained a Byzantine satellite, however, until <i>circa</i> 775, when Leo II of Abkhazia inherited Egrisi. </div>
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In 555/56 A.D., at the height of the Byzantine-Persian conflict, the emperor Justinian installed Tzathes (Tzathus II) as king of Lazica. An imperial officer, Soterichus, accompanied Tzathes on his return to the Caucasus. Soterichus brought with him a large sum of money from the imperial treasury, the object being “to reinforce the allegiance of the peoples to the north of Lazica by sending them money” (Braund, 1994, p. 309). With a small entourage, Soterichus “proceeded northwards to distribute money among the peoples of the Lazian empire in that region. The first recipients were to be the Misimiani, who guarded a principal route through the Caucasus on the north-eastern border of Lazica; to the east of the Apsilii. On that border, near the fort at Buchlous, Soterichus was killed by the Misimiani, apparently because of their suspicion of his intentions and their displeasure at his arrogant behavior. Perhaps they had already considered a change of allegiance to the Persians: the murder of Soterichus left no other option” (pp. 309-10).</div>
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When the promised imperial subsidy failed to materialize, “the Suani, ruled by one Tzathius, invited the Persians into Suania” (p. 312). This unexpected turn of events created an emergency for the Byzantines. Thus, in 557, ““the focus of conflict shifted to Misimia, where the Persians opposed a Byzantine force bent on avenging Soterichus. The Byzantines used as their bases the fortresses of Apsilia. For their part, the Misimians centred their resistance upon their strong fort at Tzacher, whose Greek name was Siderun, ‘Fort Iron’” (p. 310). However, the withdrawal fo the Persian force to Iberia enabled the Byzantines to reestablish control over Misimia. The Lazic War ended in 561/62, when the Persians agreed to cede Lazica to the Byzantines. The Suani, however, remained unconquered, maintained their alliance with Persia, and remained “an ever-present threat to Byzantine Lazica (p. 314) until the incursion of the Arabs in the 8<sup>th</sup> century.</div>
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Iberia, meanwhile, had remained a Persian client-state. Vakht’ang I Gorgasali, the founder of Tbilisi, led a successful uprising (482-85) but died of wounds sustained in a later battle with the Persians (<i>circa</i> 502). In the year 579/80, at the request of the Iberian aristocracy, the Persians abolished the Iberian monarchy. Thereafter, the elder line of the royal house continued as Princes of Kakhetia, its old demesne . . .” (Toumanoff, p. 253). Governors appointed by the Sassanids subjected Christians to intense persecution, as documented in the Old Georgian “Passion of St. Shushanik” (martyred 466 A.D.) and “Passion of St. Eustace of Mtskheta” (martyred 544/45) (Lang, 1976). </div>
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The 6<sup>th</sup> century was notable for the activities of the “Thirteen Assyrian Fathers” (<i>atcammet’i asureli mamani</i>), a group of missionaries from Mesopotamia. Led by St. Davit Garejeli, they established a number of monasteries throughout Iberia. The Assyrian Fathers were apparently Monophysites, forced to flee Syria in the face of Byzantine religious persecution. Monophysitism appears to have flourished among the Georgians until 608, when the schism between the Armenian (Monophysite) Church and the Georgian (Diophysite) Church was formalized at the Council of Dvini. This led to a renewed persecution of Georgian Christians in the year 614, when the Persian emperor Khosrow (Chosroës) II decreed that only Christians of the Monophysite persuasion would be tolerated within his domains (Silogava & Shengelia, 2007).</div>
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In the year 626, a combined Byzantine and Khazar army besieged Tbilisi, commanded by Jibghu, the Khazar <i>khagan</i>: “They fetched a huge pumpkin upon which they drew the image of the king of the Huns, a cubit broad and a cubit long. In place of his eyelashes which no one could see, they drew a thin line; the region of his beard they left ignominiously naked, and they made the nostrils a span wide with a number of hairs under them in the form of a moustache so that all might recognize him. This they brought and placed upon the wall opposite them, and showing it to the armies, they called out: ‘Behold the Emperor, your King! Turn and worship him, for it is Jibghu Khaqan!’ And seizing a spear, they stuck it into the pumpkin which caricatured him before them, and they mocked and jeered and reviled the other king . . . , and called him a foul sodomite” (Lang, 1966, p. 102). </div>
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In the following year (627), however, Jibghu returned and captured the city. “Jibghu celebrated the event by flaying alive the Persian and Georgian commanders of Tbilisi fortress, and sending their skins, stuffed with straw, to Emperor Heraclius as a trophy of his warlike excursion” (p. 102).</div>
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With the rise of Islam and the collapse of the Sassanian empire, a new political dynamic arose, as the South Caucasus became a bitterly-contested region between the Byzantines and the Muslims, suffering numerous invasions (the city of Tbilisi is said to have been destroyed 29 times in its history). </div>
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The first Arab irruption into the Caucasus occurred in the year 643, when an Arab army under Ḥab<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ī</span>b ibn Maslama menaced Tbilisi. During 736-38, the Arab general Murwan the Deaf (Geo. <i>Murvan q’ru</i>) invaded the West Caucasus, sacking the city of Sukhumi (a.k.a. Dioscurias, Sebastopolis). Two years later, in 645, Tbilisi fell to the Arabs, who established the “Emirate of Tbilisi” (<i>im</i><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ā</i></span><i>rat Tibl</i><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ī</i></span><i>s</i><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ī</i></span>; Geo. <i>Tbilisis saamiro</i>). The city was sacked for a second time by the Khazars in 764. The Old Georgian “Passion of St. Abo of Tiflis” (martyred 786) dates from this period. </div>
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Meanwhile, in the 790s, Leo II of Abkhazia conquered Lazica, putting an end to such vestiges of imperial control as remained after the dissolution of the Lazic state and establishing the new west Georgian state of Abasgia. Theodosius III, the last sovereign of this dynasty, was deposed in 978 (Toumanoff, 1963, p. 256). The throne then passed to Theodosius’ nephew, Bagrat III, a son of the king of Iberia. “Under the Bagratids, Iberia and Tayk‘ merged in 1000, and in 1008 Abkhazia (including all of West Georgia, the earlier Kolkhis/Lazika), was inherited as well” (Hewsen, 1992, p. 129n). Thus for the first time in their history, Colchis and Iberia were united under the same monarch.</div>
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In the year 853, an Arab force under Bugha al-Turk<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ī</span> (“Bugha the Turk”) captured Tbilisi. The Christian population was assembled on the banks of the Mtkvari and forced to choose between martyrdom and conversion to Islam. Some 50,000 chose martyrdom, and the waters of the Mtkvari are said to have run red with blood all the way from Tbilisi to the Caspian Sea (Aronson, 1990, p. 137).</div>
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The Arabs maintained control of Tbilisi for nearly 400 years, despite the invasion of the Seljuq Turks under Alp Arslan, who sacked the city in 1068.</div>
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The great victory of David IV Aghmashenebeli (“David the Builder”), assisted by several hundred Frankish Crusaders, over the Seljuqs at Didgori (1121) signaled the beginning of Georgia’s “Golden Age” (1122-1236), comprising the reigns of David IV (1089-1125), Demetre I (1125-1156), Giorgi III (1156-1184), Queen Tamar (1184-1213), Giorgi IV Lasha (1213-1223), and Queen Rusudan (1223-1245).</div>
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“Under the dynamic Queen T‘amar the Great (1187-1213), Georgia became a major power controlling both north and south Caucasia from the Black Sea to the Caspian and from central Armenia to Darband” (Hewsen, 1992, p. 129n). Jacques de Vitry (d. 1240), the Latin bishop of Acre, has left a description of the Georgian knights who used to visit the Holy City in his day “with banners displayed, without paying tribute to anyone. . . . These men . . . especially revere and worship Saint George, whom they make their patron and standard-bearer in their fight with the infidels” (Lang, 1962, p. 13). The Georgian rulers adopted a number of titles associated with the Crusades, including “Slave of the Messiah” (King David the Builder), “Sword of the Messiah” (Kings Giorgi III and IV) and “Champion of the Messiah” (Queens Tamar and Rusudan) (Lang, 1962, p. 13).</div>
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The Mongol invasion (1236) marked the end of this brilliant period, and the invasion of Tamerlane (who ravaged the country eight times between 1386 and 1403) depopulated entire districts. “Tamerlane’s six genocidal attacks between 1384 and 1403 made the first Mongol invasions seem benevolent by comparison. The number of Georgian-speakers was reduced from perhaps 5,000,000 of the 1200s to perhaps 2,000,000” (Rayfield, 1994, p. 98).</div>
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This tragedy was succeeded by a dark period during which Georgia was divided into the three kingdoms of Imereti, Kartli, and K’akheti, along with numerous smaller principalities in the west (nominal vassals of the king of Imereti), including Guria, Mingrelia (Samegrelo), Svaneti, and Samtskhe. These polities fragmented even further in the course of the following centuries. </div>
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Russian involvement in the Caucasus was greatly accelerated in the year 1579, when the Cossack outlaw Andrei Shadrin built the forts of Terki and Andreyevo on the Terek river (Allen, 1971).</div>
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During this period, a new east-west dynamic arose, with the (Sunni) Ottomans establishing their sphere of influence in western Georgia (Samtzkhe, Imereti and the principalities), and the (Shi’ite) Persians in the east (Kartli and K’akheti). This arrangement was formalized by the Turko-Persian Treaty of 1636 (Allen, 1971). The Caucasus had always been an important source of slaves, and the trade in Christian slaves reached egregious levels during this period of fragmentation and Islamic domination. </div>
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Nevertheless, the Georgians managed to maintain their Christian faith despite vigorous attempts (especially by the Persians) to stamp it out. Between 1614 and 1617, for example, <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Shāh</span> ‘Abb<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span>s ravaged K’akheti and deported 200,000 Georgians to the distant province of Mazandaran; ironically, their descendants in Iran are still Christians and still speak Georgian; while the Persian population sent to replace them eventually converted from Islam to Christianity and, like the Kipchaks, have since been completely assimilated into the Georgian population.</div>
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In 1614, Queen Ketevan, the mother of Teimuraz I of K’akheti, was sent to Shiraz to conduct negotiations with <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Shāh</span> ‘Abb<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span>s and remained there as a hostage. In 1624, the Shah ordered the queen to choose between death and entering his harem as a convert to Islam. She chose death, and was tortured to death with red-hot pincers (22 September 1624). A group of Portuguese Augustinians was present, and transmitted a clandestine account of this event (Lang, 1976, pp. 169-72). A portion of the martyred queen’s remains were smuggled back to K’akheti, where they were interred in Alaverdi cathedral. The Augustinians transported the rest of her relics to Goa, where they were buried in the Church of St. Augustine.</div>
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The Ottoman Turks, meanwhile, had seized the Genoese colony of Mapa (Anapa) in 1475. From their new base at Anapa, the Ottomans initiated an extremely aggressive campaign against the pagan Circassians (1479), seizing thousands of slaves and depopulating entire districts. In the course of the 16<sup>th</sup> century, the Ottomans gained control of the entire northeast littoral of the Black Sea, including Sochi (DATE), Sukhumi (1570s), and Poti (1578). At the same time, the Turks dispatched the missionary Isḥ<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">āq</span> Efendi into the North Caucasus. The North Caucasian peoples, superficially Christianized under Georgian influence during the Middle Ages, had long since reverted to paganism. This must have been a remarkable person, for he succeeded single-handedly in converting large parts of the North Caucasus to Islam, passing through Circassia and Kabarda and penetrating as far east as Ingushetia and Chechnya. This event set the stage for the great resistance of the Islamized peoples of the North Caucasus to Russian encroachment which was to dominate the history of the region throughout the 18<sup>th</sup> and 19<sup>th</sup> centuries.</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>17<sup>th</sup>-18<sup>th</sup> centuries (Silver Age)</b></span></div>
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Western Georgia collapsed into anarchy upon the death of Alexander III of Imereti (1660). When his heir Bagrat refused to marry Alexander’s widow (and his own step-mother), Queen Darejan, she had him blinded and seized power for herself, marrying the nobleman Vakht’ang Ch’uch’unashvili. In 1668, however, “certain of the nobles of Imereti persuaded Darejan’s favorite to kill her. The favorite . . . murdered her with a spear as she was doing her hair, while other conspirators dispatched her husband Wakhtang in the square outside” (Lang, 1957, p. 88). “In the fifty years 1661-1711, no less than sixteen claimants seized, for short periods, the throne of Imereti” (Allen, 1971, p. 178n). In contrast, between 1656 and 1722, the eastern part of the country (Kartli and K’akheti) enjoyed some degree of peace and prosperity; those members of the ruling Mukhranian family who were willing to convert to Islam “appear to have established something like an hereditary claim to preferment to the governorships of Isfahan and Kandahar. . . . The Georgian princes were in high favour with the Shi’ah faction at Isfahan, of which they were virtually the leaders. The Sunni faction, headed by the Afghan, Mir-Wais, and later by his son Mahmud, were their inveterate enemies” (Allen, 1971, p. 351). Giorgi XI of Kartli served as governor of Qandahar and was treacherously murdered at a banquet by Mir-Vays (1709). His brother Alexander (Skander Mirza) was appointed governor of Isfahan in 1699. The Georgian troops were regarded as the best at the Shah’s disposal. According to the English traveler Jonas Hanway, they were “better disciplined and more inured to war than his Afghans” . . . their courage was invincible” (p. 351). </div>
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Vakht’ang VI, remarkable for his many cultural and military achievements, served as <i>j</i><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ā</i></span><i>nish</i><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ī</i></span><i>n</i> (regent) of Kartli from 1703 to 1714, and as <i>wal</i><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ī</i></span> (viceroy) from 1716 to 1724. Secretly converted to Roman Catholicism under the influence of Capuchin missionaries, he sent his uncle, Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani (also a convert to Catholicism) to western Europe (1703-16), where he unsuccessfully sought the assistance of Louis XIV and Pope Clement XI against the Persians. Vakht’ang VI waged unremitting war against the Lezgians; owing to a population explosion in the mountains of Daghestan, these tribesmen took to support themselves by working as day-laborers in Baku and by making annual incursions into K’akheti and Kartli in search of slaves and plunder. In 1720, Vakht’ang’s army “killed enough Lezghian tribesmen to send 400 heads as a trophy to the shah” (Lang, 1957, p. 110).</div>
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In 1722, Peter the Great assembled an army at Astrakhan, comprising 82,000 infantry, 9,000 dragoons, and about 70,000 Cossacks, Kalmucks and Tatars. He seized the Shamkhal’s capital of Tarku without a fight, defeated 16,000 Lezgians at Utemish, and then entered Derbent (23 August). </div>
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In anticipation of the Tsar’s arrival, Vakht’ang VI assembled an army of 40,000 Georgians, Armenians, and mercenary contingents at Ganja. However, Peter’s abrupt decision to abandon the campaign (late left the king in desperate circumstances. The Shah responded to Vakht’ang’s treachery by awarding his kingdom to Constantine II of K’akheti, who captured Tbilisi with the aid of Persian and Lezgian troops (4 May 1723). The Ottomans, meanwhile, had invaded Kartli from the west. The Turks refused to accept the submission of Vakht’ang VI, who had withdrawn to the province of Shida Kartli, and elevated his brother Iese in his place. Accompanied by 1200 retainers, Vakht’ang crossed the Caucasus into Russia (July 1724), where he died as an exile at Astrakhan in 1737.</div>
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After the reestablishment of Ottoman control over the Mingrelian coast (1723), the ports of Poti and Anaklia became great slave-trading <i>entrepôts</i>. The disturbances of the 1720s are believed to have reduced the Georgian population by three-quarters.</div>
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<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">In 1735, Nāder Shāh liberated Tbilisi from Turkish control. Thus “the </span><i>osmanloba</i> [Ottoman rule] was replaced by the <i>kizilbashoba</i> (rule by the <i>kizilbash</i>, or ‘redheads,’ as the Safavids were known” (Suny, 1994, p. 55).</div>
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Erek’le II, a nephew of Constantine II, acceded to the throne of K’akheti in 1732. </div>
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In 1738, he accompanied <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Nāder Shāh in his invasion of India, where he</span> participated in the battle of Karnal (13 February 1739) and witnessed the sack of Delhi (22 March), in the course of which the Persians slaughtered 30,000 people. The Shah’s armies returned to Isfahan laden with plunder, including the famous Peacock Throne and the <i>Koh-i Noor</i> and <i>Darya-ye Noor</i> diamonds (Allen, 1971).</div>
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The destruction of <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Nāder Shāh</span>’s army by the Daghestanians on the plain of Andalal (1741) entirely changed the political situation in the Caucasus. The final years of <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Nāder Shāh</span>’s reign were a period of great instability: “The onderous taxes and requisitions which he was imposing on the whole of his dominions to finance his military undertakings, produced among the Georgians a state of savage desperation. Corn had become so dear that the peasants were living on boiled nuts and giving their children into slavery in default of finding the corn tax; and slaves were so cheap that men were sold for four shillings each. In order to escape the taxes on vines and fruit-trees, the people destroyed them wholesale, and great numbers emigrated so that ‘Turkey was full of Kartlians.’ In Tiflis, thousands of wild Indian and Afghan troops terrified the population, and the revolt of the Eristavi Shanshé was suppressed in the bloody desolation of the valleys of the Liakhvi, the Ksani and the Aragvi” (Allen, 1971, p. 192).</div>
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The signal victory of the Daghestanians over the armies of the Shah created a new dynamic in the Caucasus. The Shamkhal of Kazi-Kumuq enjoyed tremendous prestige in the region as a result of this victory, and as a result, he and his allies (including Omar Khan of Avaria and the Lezgians, who were not centrally organized) were able to undertake annual raids into K’akheti and Kartli. In K’akheti, particularly, this resulted in significant social upheavals as many Georgians became “Lezghinified” and took to assisting the invaders in their raids (Kacharava, 2008b). The Lezgians “made incessant incursions into Georgia, plundering and laying waste the country, which at the same time was afflicted by so severe a famine that the people were obliged to subsist on grass like the cattle, or on anything else they could find; and at last the inhabitants were reduced to such extremity, that parents, stifling the emotions of natural affection, cast from them their own offspring” (Artemi of Wagarichapat, 1755, quoted by Lang, 1957, p. 154).</div>
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The Lezgians burned Alaverdi cathedral on more than one occasion; the great defensive wall around the town of Sighnaghi with its 28 massive towers, built by command of Erek’le II, also witnesses to this turbulent period. The king’s residence at Telavi (Bat’onistsikhe) is notable for its defensive features: “the single-naved royal chapel built by Erekle II in 1758 . . . is unusual in that it has holes for firearms in the walls” (Plunkett & Masters, 2004, p. 86). </div>
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This period was also marked by a series of rebellions among the Georgian nobility, most notably the long duel between the rebel dukes of Ksani and the kings of Kartli, continuing even after the death of Shanshe of Ksani (1753), who had remained capable of causing trouble even after being blinded by the Persians. In 1739, Shanshe had burned the fortress of Ananuri and slaughtered the entire family of the <i>eristavi </i>of Aragvi. A subsequent uprising by the peasants of Ananuri (1743) was suppressed by Erek’le II of K’akheti (1746) (Plunkett & Masters, 2004, p. 79). Shanshe and his successors “brought in hordes of Lazghis to pillage the country” (Allen, 1971, p. 191) and remained a significant threat until the <i>saeristavo</i> of Ksani was finally subdued in 1777 (Lang, 1957, p. 159).</div>
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Erek’le II, known as <i>p’at’ara k’akhi</i> (“the little Kakhetian”), finally succeeded (1762) in uniting K’akheti and Kartli, and fought successfully against a wide array of domestic and foreign enemies. “His name was spoken in the West, and to Frederick the Great is attributed the remark: “<i>Moi en Europe, et en Asie l’invincible Hercule</i>” (Allen, 1971, p. 201). During the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774, Russian forces invaded Imereti (1769), while Erek’le II inflicted a decisive defeat on the Turks at Aspindza (20 April 1770).</div>
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Beset by enemies on all sides, Erek’le II eventually concluded the Treaty of Georgievsk (24 July 1783), by which he accepted Russian suzerainty and renounced all allegiance to Turkey and Persia. In the following year (1784), Russian engineers (supported by the slave-labor of local peasants) opened the “Georgian Military Highway” through the Dariel Pass. </div>
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A new era in the history of the Caucasus was signaled in 1785, when Shaykh Mansur began to preach <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">газават</span> (<i>ghazaw</i><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ā</i></span><i>t</i>, <i>jih</i><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ād</i></span>) in the North Caucasus. Shaykh Mansur was in fact “an Italian adventurer, one Giovanni Battista Boetti, born at Monferrat, where his father practised as a notary” (Baddeley, 1908/1969, p. 48). Mansur was able to travel at will throughout the North Caucasus, mobilizing the tribesmen against the Russians. In 1785, he narrowly escaped capture at Aldee in Chechnya but then succeeded in ambushing the retreating Russians, massacring 600 of them. From there he fled to the Circassians, who under his leadership annihilated three Cossack regiments on the Yaik river (2 November 1786). Defeated by Gen. Tekelli, Shaykh Mansur took refuge with the Ottomans at Anapa. Two Russian attempts to take the fortress (1787, 1788) ended in disaster; however, on 22 June 1790, Gen. Potemkin stormed the city and slaughtered its garrison of 15,000. Shaykh Mansur was one of the few prisoners taken that day, and ended his days in captivity in the Solovietsk Monastery on an island in the White Sea, from which he addressed a series of letters to his father in Monferrat (Baddeley, 1908/1969). </div>
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The Treaty of Georgievsk had had the unfortunate effect of enraging <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Ā</span>g<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span> Muḥammad Kh<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span>n, the “Eunuch Shah,” who appeared on Erek’le’s borders in 1795 to demand his submission. When Erek’le refused to appear, the Shah invaded his territories and advanced on Tbilisi. Promised Russian aid failed to materialize, and despite a heroic resistance (most notably the sacrifice of the “300 of the Aragvi” who volunteered to block the Persian advance in order to buy time for the evacuation of the city and fought to the last man), Tbilisi was sacked by the Persians (10 September 1795).</div>
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<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Ā</span>g<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span> Muḥammad returned to Tehran, from where he addressed a series of letters to Erek’le II, demanding his submission and threatening to “‘make a flowing river of the blood of the Russian and Georgian and peoples. . . . If you do not carry out our commands,’ he added, ‘you know yourself what will ensue’” (Lang, 1957, p. 223). </div>
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The Shah proceeded to invade Armenia and Qarabagh, “with the intention of deporting the population wholesale as <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Shāh</span> ‘Abb<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span>s I had done two centuries before. Contemporary observers record that he was now in a state of morbid blood-lust verging on insanity, and would torture to death even the grandees of the realm on any trivial pretext” (p. 223). </div>
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In June 1797, <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Ā</span>g<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span> Muḥammad occupied Shusha, with the intention of ravaging Georgia for a second time. On the evening of June 16, 1797, he dined on part of a melon and had the rest put away for the morrow, warning his attendants not to touch it. During the night, forgetting the Shah’s warning, one of them consumed part of the leftover melon. Realizing their mistake and its probable consequences, two of his slaves (one of them a Georgian) strangled him with a scarf and fled the camp. The ensuing chaos resulted in the withdrawal of the Persian army from the Caucasus.</div>
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Erek’le II, meanwhile, fell ill and died at Telavi at the age of 77 (11 January 1798). He was succeeded by his son Giorgi XII, “a notorious gourmand” (Lang, 1957, p. 226), corpulent and severely afflicted with dropsy.</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>Russian Annexation</b></span></div>
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Just prior to his death on 28 December 1800, Giorgi XII bequeathed his kingdom to the Russian crown. However, this fact was not made public until February of 1801, and when Gen. Knorring arrived in Tbilisi (22 May 1801), he found the king’s eldest son, the Prince-Regent David, “wielding virtually despotic power” and “at once removed him from all authority and set up a provisional government” (Allen, 1957, p. 247). The Queen Dowager Darejan (widow of Erek’le II) sought to persuade the Russians to cancel the annexation of the country and revert to the “simple protectorate” envisioned by the 1783 Treaty of Georgievsk, but to no avail. The Russian administration sought to arrest all surviving members of the Georgian royal family and deport them to Russia. However, when Gen. Lazarev entered the bedroom of Queen Mariam (the widow of Giorgi XII) and attempted to take her into custody (22 April 1803), she drew a dagger from under a cushion and stabbed him to death. For this, she was confined for seven years to a convent in Voronezh. David (the Prince-Regent), his mother Darejan, and other members of the family were transported to Russia as well. Two of David’s uncles (Yulon and Parnavaz, brothers of Giorgi XII) escaped and sought to instigate a revolt against the Russians, but were captured in 1804 and deported. David’s brother Teimuraz escaped to Persia, where he sought assistance against the Russians but surrendered in 1810 and was deported. Prince Alexander (1770-1844, another son of Erek’le II) also escaped to Persia, where he became a military officer, invaded the country repeatedly in support of a series of anti-Russian revolts, and remained the focus of Georgian nationalistic aspirations until his death in 1844.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Georgian royal family was well treated in Russia, where there was already a sizeable Georgian émigré community dating from the 1720s. They were enrolled in the Russian nobility, and many of them became senators and military officers.</div>
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A successful war with Turkey led to the annexation of the western Georgian states as well (Mingrelia in 1803, Imereti and Guria in 1810, Dadiani (Gelovani) Svaneti and Dadeshkeliani Svaneti in 1833, and Tavisupali Svaneti in 1840). However, the Svans continued to manage their own affairs and did not allow Russian officials or church missions into the area until the late 1840s (Principality of Svaneti, 2011). In 1857, the Russians deposed the last prince of Svaneti, Constantine Dadeshkaliani, who was to be exiled to Yerevan. However, at a farewell interview in Kutaisi, he murdered the Russian Governor-General (along with three members of his staff) and fled. Upon his capture, the prince was summarily court-martialed and shot.</div>
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While Georgian Orthodoxy did not differ from Russian Orthodoxy, the two cultures proved incompatible and there were numerous revolts against Russian rule. The first of these broke out in 1804, when Georgian and Ossetian peasants impressed into slave-labor on the Georgian Military Highway killed the Russian commandant at Ananuri and briefly menaced Gori. “Brutal reprisals ensued, a number of families imprisoned in the fortress of Gori being left to die of hunger and cold” (Lang, 1957, p. 258). A much more serious revolt broke out in K’akheti (January 1812). The rebels slaughtered the Russian garrison at Sighnaghi and blockaded Telavi, and the rebellion spread to the Ananuri district as well. The rebels were eventually defeated in a series of hard-fought engagements, but the uprising continued until October, when Prince Alexander Bat’onishvili, who had invaded K’akheti in support of the rebels with an army of Lezgians, was defeated at Sighnaghi and forced to withdraw. In 1820, the murder of Archbishop Dositheus of Kutaisi by Cossacks led to a spontaneous revolt against Russian rule in Imereti, Rach’a, Mingrelia, Guria, and Abkhazia. The rebels again summoned Alexander Bat’onishvili from Persia, but the uprising was eventually crushed in 1822.</div>
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The period of Russian rule (1801-1991) is remembered as a dark period in Georgian history, but was perhaps “the lesser of two evils.” The manuscripts studied in this paper are products of this period—the closing years of Georgian independence and the early years of Russian rule.</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>Excursus on the Georgian Language</b></span></div>
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The Georgian language is unrelated to any of the Indo-European, Turkic, Semitic, or North Caucasian languages in its vicinity. There are five vowels and 28 consonants, including contrastive aspirated, voiced, and ejective series (p<sup>h</sup>, p’, b; t<sup>h</sup>, t’, d; k<sup>h</sup>, k’, g). Several letters (y, w, q, <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ē, ō) are found in Old Georgian but are no longer used. </span>The Kartvelian languages are famous for their large consonant inventories and consonant clusters (e.g. <i>mghvdlis</i>, <i>mze</i>, <i>mtvare</i>, <i>tkventvis</i>, <i>msxlis</i>, <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ğ</i></span><i>vtis</i>, <i>cmnatoba</i>, <i>z</i><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ğ</i></span><i>va</i>, <i>mtkvari</i>, <i>c’q’lis</i>, <i>cxveni</i>, <i>bav</i><span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;"><i>švs</i>, <i>varsk’vlavi</i>)</span>. In a letter to the emperor Marcus Aurelius (161 A.D.), M. Cornelius Fronto comments on the outlandish sound of the Iberian (Old Georgian) language, which he had heard on a previous occasion when Iberian and Parthian delegations offered congratulatory speeches to the emperor: “you would listen even to the Parthians and Iberians in their own tongue, so they but praised your father, as if they were most consummate orators” (Fronto, 1955, p. 303). This is a feature shared with the (unrelated) North Caucasian languages, and may have been acquired through long contact with them (the Etruscan, Iberian, Aquitanian, and Basque languages, to which Kartvelian may have a distant genetic relationship, have very limited consonant inventories). Most roots are monosyllabic, with frequent use of reduplication in word formation. Nouns are declined (seven cases: Nominative, Ergative, Dative/Accusative, Genitive, Instrumental, Adverbial, Vocative). Verbal morphology is exceedingly complex (eleven slots: Preverb + Prefixal Nominal Marker + Version Marker + ROOT + Passive Marker + Thematic Suffix + Causative Marker + Imperfective Marker + Suffixal Nominal Marker + Verbal Auxiliary + Plural Marker). There are eleven verb tenses, along with a wide array of Verbal Nouns (<i>masdar</i>). Georgian is a split-ergative language (unlike the languages of the North Caucasus, which are pure ergative languages); the ergative case is employed for transitive agents in the aorist system only—outside the aorist system, the nominative is used. </div>
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There has been much speculation as to possible distant relationships of Kartvelian to other linguistic phyla. During the 19<sup>th</sup> century, Russian linguists proposed the Ibero-Caucasian hypothesis, which assumed a distant genetic relationship linking Kartvelian to the other two Caucasian phyla (Northwest Caucasian and Northeast Caucasian). This hypothesis has been almost entirely abandoned: although the North Caucasian languages share many lexical and phonological features with the Kartvelian languages, it is now clear that no genetic relationship exists between them. There have also been various attempts to connect Kartvelian to Sumerian, to Etruscan, and (more plausibly) to the languages of the western Iberians (Ligurian, Iberian, Aquitanian, Basque). Many linguists have contributed to this discussion, especially regarding the Basque-Caucasian (Vasconic-Kartvelian) hypothesis. Although dismissed by the Basque specialist R.L. Trask, this hypothesis probably merits further attention. The present study will proceed on the assumption that the Vasconic-Kartvelian hypothesis may have some validity, noting parallels to Basque materials as appropriate. Etruscan parallels will also be noted.</div>
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Long-range comparative linguists have placed Kartvelian within Nostratic, with Indo-European and Kartvelian (and sometimes Etruscan) forming a genetic node. Such a connection is strongly suggested by such shared features as the six-way conjugation of the verb (3 persons, singular and plural), the genitive in –is, and the similarity of pronoun forms (Kartvelian 1<sup>st</sup> person singular <i>me[n],</i> 2<sup>nd</sup> person singular <i>shen</i>). In particular, Kartvelian has been proposed as the origin of the Germanic substratum (a large body of vocabulary in Germanic which is not of Indo-European origin). For example, the German <i>See</i> [“sea”] may be connected to the Georgian <i>z</i><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ğ</i></span><i>va</i> [“sea”].</div>
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There has been much scholarly debate on the origin of the Georgian alphabet. While Old Georgian sources attribute the invention of this unique alphabet to king P’arnavaz (3<sup>rd</sup> century B.C.), no undisputed pre-Christian text has so far been found. The oldest extant Georgian texts date from the early 5<sup>th</sup> century A.D., leading most scholars to associate the creation of the Georgian writing system with the nation’s conversion to Christianity (<i>circa</i> 330 A.D.). The inclusion of the letters <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ē and ō (essential to Greek, corresponding to the letters </span><i>eta</i> and <i>omega</i>, but quite irrelevant to Georgian phonology) lends some support to this argument (Jost Gippert, personal communication, 22 October 2009). On the other hand, Allen (1971) accepts the account of the invention of the Georgian alphabet by king P’arnavaz, arguing that “a comparison of the Zend alphabet with the Georgian <i>mkhedruli</i> script makes it possible to recognize the equivalents among Georgian letters of no less than twenty-five of thirty-five of the letters in the Zend alphabet” (p. 309). In any case, early Georgian sources preserve a great deal of pre-Christian material, demonstrating the existence of a vigorous oral literature (at least) in pre-Christian times. For example, Miriani III of Iberia (d. 361), before converting to Christianity, researched the matter and discovered that “the evidence of the Old and New Testaments was confirmed by the Book of Nimrod” (Lang, 1976, p. 29).</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>Excursus on Georgian Literature</b></span></div>
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The earliest extant text in Georgian is an inscription from Jerusalem dating from the 5<sup>th</sup> century A.D. The Old Georgian version of the Bible is known to have been translated during the 5<sup>th</sup> century as well. Georgian literature developed rapidly thereafter, comprising at first mainly translations of Greek patristic texts. At the same time, a characteristic Georgian Christian literature arose, including numerous saints’ lives and Christian hymns of high literary quality. </div>
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As in other regions, the composition and copying of Christian texts was associated with monasteries, especially the numerous Georgian monasteries in the isolated region of T’ao-Klarjeti and the expatriate Georgian monastic communities at Mt. Athos, Jerusalem, and Mt. Sinai. This gave rise to a flourishing literary culture which compares favorably to its Armenian, Byzantine, and Western European counterparts. Georgian literature was highly developed and came to diverge significantly from the spoken language. The Georgian monastic <i>scriptoria</i> developed elaborate scribal conventions, including a profusion of ligatures and abbreviations. </div>
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A wide array of verse-forms was developed, suitable to the complex syllabification of the Georgian language. The Georgian literary lexicon was enriched with numerous borrowings from Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Aramaic, and Armenian, and Georgian writers made brilliant use of puns and acrostics. The poetry of Vakht’ang VI (ed. Baramidze, 1975) includes several virtuosic examples of palindromic verse, and may be presented as examples of this literary culture at the most refined stage of its development.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The <i>Vepxis T’q’aosani</i> of Shota Rustaveli (1172-1216), however, is universally recognized as the masterpiece of Georgian literature, and extensive passages from this poem are committed to memory by al Georgian schoolchildren. Rustaveli’s poem embodies the culture and ideals of Georgia’s “Golden Age” (1122-1236). This same period saw a fluorescence of Georgian intellectual life, profoundly influenced by the Neoplatonism taught at the academies of Gelati (West Georgia) and Iq’alto (East Georgia). </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Georgian literature, therefore, may be roughly divided into three phases: 1) the early period, characterized by religious texts compiled using foreign models; 2) the Golden Age, which generated a great secular literature exemplified by Rustaveli and his many imitators, including Grigol Chakhrukhadze and Ioane Shavteli; 3) the Silver Age (17<sup>th</sup>-18<sup>th</sup> centuries), a period dominated by the “royal poets” Teimuraz I of K’akheti, Archil of Imereti, Vakht’ang VI of Kartli, and Teimuraz II of K’akheti, along with such luminaries as Sulkhan-Saba Orbeliani, Mamuka Baratashvili, Davit Guramishvili, Sayat-Nova, Besiki, <i>Catholicos</i> Anton I, and Vakhushti Bagrationi, and characterized by elaborate literary artifice. Many astrological texts, including the many versions of the “Star Book,” date to this period. </div>
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All three periods are marked by great achievements in the realm of historiography; the Georgian chronicles are arguably Georgia’s greatest literary achievement, and preserve large amounts of pre-Christian material. </div>
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Eventually, Russian annexation brought Georgian literature under the influence of Russian and West European models, so that this late phase of Georgian literature came to exemplify the same tendencies (Neo-classicism, Romanticism, Regionalism, Realism, Symbolism) typical of 19<sup>th</sup> century European literature (Rayfield, 1994).</div>
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The first Georgian-language printing house was established in the 1620s in Italy and the first one in Georgia itself was founded in 1709 in Tbilisi. (New World Encyclopedia)] + book including Italian glossary + W6 1709-1722/24 + Bakar’s Bible (Russia).</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>B. Indigenous astrological traditions of the Caucasus</b></span></div>
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As we have already noted, the Caucasus has served as a <i>refugium</i> for remnants of various ethnic groups. Each of these groups has preserved an array of cultural practices and folkloric concepts with roots in the deep past. In many cases, the ethnography of the Caucasus provides our only window into the cultural institutions of the distant past, a snapshot of human life in Neolithic times. On one hand, as emphasized by Reidla <i>et al.</i> (2003, ¶11), the Caucasus functioned as a “major geographical barrier between the two regions” of the North Caucasus and the South Caucasus; the languages of the North Caucasus are entirely unrelated to the Kartvelian languages of the South Caucasus, and their cultures are built upon an entirely different basis. At the same time, all of these ethnic groups have lived in close proximity to each other for centuries, resulting in an extremely complex web of cultural transmission and borrowing. </div>
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Each of the numerous tribes and ethnic groups of the Caucasus has a set of cosmological and astrological beliefs and practices. In most cases, these are deeply-rooted in the remote past and form part of a complex of ideas involving sympathetic magic and divinatory practices. In a few cases (notably among the Georgians and the Chechens), fully-articulated astrological systems have developed, incorporating astrological concepts from various advanced civilizations in the vicinity of the Caucasus.</div>
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The sections that follow will present what I have been able to learn about the indigenous astrological traditions of nine important ethnic groups of the Caucasus: the Vainakh (Chechen & Ingush), the Abkhaz, the Abazins, the Ubykh, the Circassians, the peoples of Daghestan, the Ossetians, the Armenians, and the Kalmyks. This will give us some conception of the traditional cosmological and astrological ideas current in the Caucasus, and will also enable us to identify specific parallels and influences within the Georgian astrological manuscripts that are the focus of this study.</div>
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In addition, we will examine the cosmological tradition of the Western Iberians (Iberians, Aquitanians, Basques), which demonstrates some remarkable parallels to those of the Caucasus.</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>1. Vainakh Tradition:</b></span></div>
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The Vainakh peoples (including the Chechens), along with the peoples of Daghestan, are thought to be the descendants of the ancient Subarians, Hurrians, and Urartians.</div>
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Er / Hereti / Erebuni + Malkh + Nakhichevan [see Wikipedia NAKH PEOPLES article]</div>
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Hurrians = Horites; Lezgian, Vainakh (retreat of Hurrians)</div>
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“The Georgian chronicles of Leonti Mroveli state that the Urartians “returned” to their homeland (i.e. Kakheti) in the Trans-Caucasus, which had become by then “Kartlian domain”, after they were defeated” (Wikipedia)</div>
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“There is evidence that at one point of their civilizational development the proto-Nakh had a ‘hearth-city’ as the centre of their universe, which may well have been Tushpa, the capital of Urartu. In Chechen, tush = hearth cavity, p-ha = settlement, pkha = artery. Tushpa is also interpreted as the land of the storm-god Teshup of the Hurrians and Urartians.” (Jaimoukha, p. 267n).</div>
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• “The Ingush and Chechens were still hunting birds early this century, using bows which fired stones, which were carried in a shoulder-bag” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 32). </div>
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Metzamor fortress (Armenia), astronomical reliefs from 3<sup>rd</sup> millennium B.C. (Eynatyan, 2007). <span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;"><i>TSAROIEVA, Anciennes Croyances: p. 369 (days of 7 days succeeding, cf. xval, zeg, mazeg)</i></span></div>
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<span style="font: 12.0px 'Times New Roman';"><i><span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></i></span><i>Julius von Klaproth writes concerning the Ingush that “for persons killed by lightning, they erect poles to which they attach the head and extended skin of a goat” (1814, p. 349).</i></div>
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кхокогседа = Triangulum (Mul-Apin) [кхоког = trivet (culturally important)</div>
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<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">жоьра</span>-<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">баба</span> = witch, sorceress [both from Nichols & Vagapov, 2004)</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Vainakh peoples (Chechen and Ingush) had an extremely interesting astrological tradition, and actually produced astrological manuscripts. Aside from the Georgians, theirs was the most fully elaborated native astrological system in the Caucasus. Unfortunately, several important collections of Chechen manuscripts and folklore were deliberately destroyed by the Russians in 1944 (when the Chechens were deported to Central Asia, accused of collaboration with the Nazis) and again during the 1994-96 war. As a result, I have so far been unable to locate any surviving example of a Chechen astrological manuscript. However, I have been able to collect quite a bit of interesting information about the Chechen astrological tradition from a variety of sources.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>According to Jaimoukha (2005), “Fortune-telling (<i>pal</i>) was a developed ‘craft’ among the Vainakh [i.e. Chechens], who had special classes of people with vatic powers and a number of oracular devices, including a book of divinations (<i>seeda-zhaina</i>: literally “star book”), at their disposal. Diviners would spend the night in a sanctuary, lying face down and keeping their ears pressed to the floor to hear the deity’s revelations and convey them to an eager audience the next morning. Scapulomancers divined the future by scapulae, holding the ram shoulder-blades to the light and interpreting the marks, the spots predicting the harvest, weather and even familial events. In addition, women soothsayers sized pieces of cloth, wrapped spoons with cotton and used lithomancy, hyalomancy, akin to crystal-gazing, and catoptromancy to foretell the future. Auspices and augury had religious and practical applications, for example using the arrival of the hoopoe to predict the advent of spring” (p. 150). It is not clear from this whether <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Седа-Жайна (“Star Book”) was the name of a specific manuscript treatise or whether the term refers to a literary genre. Tsaroieva (2005</span>, p. 389) traces this information to A. P. Ippolitov but gives no specific reference.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>It appears that the Chechens, like the Georgians, understood the Sun to be a feminine being, as evidenced by the phrase “<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">малх нана ю сан</span>” (“the sun is my mother”) (Gould, p. 43).</div>
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<i>Le Soleil et la Lune ont des mères: la mère du Soleil s’appelle </i></div>
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<i>Aza, et la mère de la lune s’appelle Kint</i><span style="text-decoration: underline;"><i>sh</i></span><i>a. Le matin, le Soleil sort </i></div>
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<i>de la mer; et, le soir, y plonge de nouveau. Quand il se lève à </i></div>
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<i>l’horizon, quelque chose de noir se dégage de lui; on dit que c’est </i></div>
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<i>l’écume de mer qui coule du Soleil. On peut le regarder à ce </i></div>
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<i>moment, parce que, baigné dans la mer froide, il ne parvient pas </i></div>
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<i>encore à être chauffé…En été et en hiver, le Soleil est en visite </i></div>
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<i>chez sa mère; en hiver il y reste trois jours, et en été, trois semaines. </i></div>
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<i>Sorti de la maison, le Soleil voyage six mois, puis revient à la </i></div>
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<i>maison, et il part de nouveau en voyage six mois. Le Soleil et la </i></div>
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<i>Lune sont parfois considérés comme frères. Ils ont une sœur </i></div>
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<i>méchante, Moj, qui a dévoré tous ses proches dans le ciel et laquelle </i></div>
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<i>poursuit constamment le Soleil et la Lune. Quand elle les rejoint et </i></div>
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<i>les recouvre, a lieu une eclipse. Si la pucelle première-née le </i></div>
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<i>demande, cette sœur maléfique relâche les frères. Pendant l’éclipse, </i></div>
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<i>on voit sur la Lune une sorte de fil noir; on dit que c’est le fusil du </i></div>
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<i>gardien qui garde la Lune de l’attaque de la sœur. Une tache noire </i></div>
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<i>au milieu de la Lune est le cheval que la Lune porte sur elle. Si la </i></div>
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<i>gueule de ce cheval s’élargit, alors l’été sera court, et l’hiver long; </i></div>
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<i>si la gueule rapetisse, et que le cheval, lui-même, devienne noir, </i></div>
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<i>alors l’été sera long et pluvieux, et l’hiver court.</i> (Tsaroieva, 2005, p. 119)</div>
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The account of the Sun visiting its mother is obviously a reference to the summer and winter solstices; his three-day winter visit and three-week summer visit is explained by the fact that the sun’s apparent path through the sky is shortest at the winter solstice, and longest at the summer solstice. Although diametrically opposite, these two solar “stations” (the summer and winter ingresses / first points of Cancer and Capricorn) were apparently regarded as being the same place in some sense. [0º declination / ± 23º27’ declination / antiscia distant from Cancer/Capricorn axis = parallel of declination] The wicked sister Moj represents the lunar nodes, the points at which the Moon’s orbit crosses the ecliptic, associated with eclipses of the Sun and Moon. In the astrological tradition, these points were envisioned as the head and tail of a snake or dragon. Thus, the Vainakh appear to have organized their model of the heavens around four (invisible, retrograde) points—the two solstitial points and the two lunar nodes. The final point, pertaining to divination by the appearance of “the horse’s mouth” is highly interesting. This probably refers to one of the dark areas near the western limb of the lunar disk (<i>Mare Foecunditatis</i>, <i>Mare Crisium</i>, or perhaps the entire <i>Mare Tranquilitatis</i>). The western astrological tradition has produced numerous texts (<i>keratologia</i>) pertaining to weather-prediction by the appearance of the “horns” (<i>cornua;</i><span style="font: 10.0px SLGreek;"> </span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">ke/rata</span>) of the New Moon, going back to Babylonian times (Thompson, 1900; see Güterbock, 1988, for a Hittite example). However, divination by the appearance of the lunar <i>maria</i> is highly unusual. I have never come across it except in this Chechen example.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“Les Kistes pratiquaient des divinations d’après le soleil et d’après la lune. Si le soleil semblait s’être éloigné dans le ciel, on disait que cette anneé serait riche en récoltes. Si le soleil était bas, il ne fallait pas espérer à une bonne récolte” (Tsaroieva, 2005, p. 389). This apparently describes a form of <i>calendologion</i> (weather-prediction based on meteorological phenomena obsevered on a particular day; Groundhog Day is a modern survival of this). Tsaroieva does not indicate the day associated with this divination, however, and I am unable to explain it further. If the observation was made on the first day of spring (for example), the Sun’s declination would be the same every year; the Sun’s “height” or “distance” might be based on the diviner’s subjective impression, however, rather than on its actual declination.</div>
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“Les anciens Vaïnakhs auraient eu des connaissances dans l’astrologie, car leur dieu de la magie et de la sagesse avait une étoile octaèdre qui influençait les vents et le changement du temps et par conséquent la vie de tout le people” (Tsaroieva, 2005, p. 389). This passage is extremely fascinating, since it clearly refers to the <i>Stella Ophiomimeta</i> (“serpent-imitating star”), an astrological concept from East Turkestan which is also found in N-503, the main Georgian text under investigation here. We shall discuss this more extensively below.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Berman (2009b) notes the existence in the Chechen region of “petroglyphs in underground caverns high in the mountains, dating from at least 4,000 BC,” including “solar signs” and “concentric circles in a variety of manners,” and similar motifs found in the ruins of underground dwelling houses, dating from 1,200 B.C. to 1000 A.D. (p. 51). Chechen astrological ideas clearly have their roots deep in antiquity, long before the arrival of either Christianity or Islam. </div>
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“Deeli-Malkhi, the Subterranean Kingdom to which souls transmigrated upon death, was ruled by Ishtar-Deela. It was larger than the abode of humans, requiring seven years to build. When the sun set in the west, its light and warmth were transferred to the underworld, so the worldly day corresponded to subterranean night, and vice verse. Death was only an intervital stage, life in the netherworld being conceived of as an extension of earthly existence, with similar social structures” (Jaimoukha, p. 110).</div>
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“Though considered a sibling of the sun, the moon had a lesser status (Jaimoukha, p. 110). “Celestial bodies had their distinctive names, such as Milky Way: Mottig Taacha Tinkada (Ingush name; literally: ‘place strewn with straw’), Triangulum: Kkhokogseeda (‘Trivet-Star’), Ursa Major: Vorkh’ Veshin Vorkh’ Seeda (‘Seven Stars of the Seven Brothers’, aka ‘Children of the Blizzard’, i.e. Dartsa Naana), Ursa Minor: Chukhchaber, and the North Star: Qilbseeda (‘South-Star’). Sueireenan Seeda and Sakhuelu Seeda were the Vainakh equivalents of the Greek Eosphorus, the Morning Star, or Venus. A comet was called ‘Ts’ogadolu Seeda’ (‘Tail Star’), and it presaged contagion, war or the birth of a great man” (Jaimoukha, p. 110).</div>
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The names of stars and constellations were also connected to myths. So Vainakhs call:</div>
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<li style="font: 10.0px 'Times New Roman'; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"><span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">▪<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way"><span style="font: 10.0px 'Times New Roman';">Milky Way</span></a></span> the route of scattered straw (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechen_language">Chechen</a>: <span style="font: 10.0px Helvetica;"><i>Ča Taqina Tača</i></span>)</li>
<li style="font: 10.0px 'Times New Roman'; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"><span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">▪<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/%22http://en.wikipedia.o"><span style="font: 10.0px 'Times New Roman';">Great Bear</span></a></span> the seven brothers’ seven stars (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechen_language">Chechen</a>: <i>Vorx Vešin Vorx Seda</i>) meets 7 sons of the god of the universe Tq'a. In the Ingush version of the legend <a href="http://www.blogger.com/%22ht">Pkharmat</a>, seven sons Tq'a were punished by his wife Khimekhninen for help Magal, stealing fire from Tq'a. She lifted them up into the air, far from land that they have become the <a href="http://www.blogger.com/%22http://en.wikipedia.org/w">seven stars</a>.</li>
<li style="font: 10.0px 'Times New Roman'; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"><span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">▪<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemini_(constellation)"><span style="font: 10.0px 'Times New Roman';">Gemini (constellation)</span></a></span> as (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechen_language">Chechen</a>: <span style="font: 10.0px Helvetica;"><i>Kovreģina Seda</i></span>)</li>
<li style="font: 10.0px 'Times New Roman'; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"><span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">▪<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius"><span style="font: 10.0px 'Times New Roman';">Sirius</span></a></span>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betelgeuse">Betelgeuse</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procyon">Procyon</a> <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nakh">Nakhs</a> named as Tripodstar (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechen_language">Chechen</a>: <i>Qokogseda</i>)</li>
<li style="font: 10.0px 'Times New Roman'; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"><span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">▪<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(constellation)"><span style="font: 10.0px 'Times New Roman';">Orion</span></a></span> as Evening star (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechen_language">Chechen</a>: <i>Märkaj Seda</i>)</li>
<li style="font: 10.0px 'Times New Roman'; margin: 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px 0.0px;"><span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">▪<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capricornus"><span style="font: 10.0px 'Times New Roman';">Capricornus</span></a></span> as Roofing towers (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechen_language">Chechen</a>: <span style="font: 10.0px Helvetica;"><i>Neģara Bjovnaš</i></span>)</li>
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<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus">Venus</a> depending on daytime as sunset star and sunrise star. (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechen_language">Chechen</a>: <i>Sadov Seda</i>) and (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechen_language">Chechen</a>: <i>Saxül Seda</i>) The name of the star (planet) is (<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chechen_language">Chechen</a>: <i>Dilbat</i>)</div>
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+15c most Chechnya converted to Islam, Ingush in 19<sup>th</sup> century (remarkable stuff re. Ingush priests) + Efendi 1782, his failure to convert them (Spencer) + Chechen reflux from the steppe (theory researched 2008?, never found source again) + days of week (Anciennes croyances p. 367) + other astrology stuff (p. 363 and preceding sections)</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>The Northwest Caucasian Peoples</b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Northwest Caucasian linguistic phylum appears to have split into its Abkhaz and Circassian branches around the beginning of the Christian era (with Ubykh occupying a position intermediate between the two) (Nichols, 1998). Nichols (2007) suggests the possibility that the Northeast Caucasian phylum “could . . . have originated in a Minoan or Trojan trade colony” (p. 783). However, if we take into account the numerous extinct languages connected to this phylum (Hattic, Maeotic, Sindic), the initial split would have to be placed much earlier (2000 B.C. or before), making this phylum comparable in age to the Northeast Caucasian phylum, which began to break up around 6000 B.C. (Nichols, 2007). </div>
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“the tree-cult . . . is aboriginal among the natives of the Caucasus, especially among the Circassians and the Abkhazians” (Allen, 1971, p. 36). [Kashkai, Abeshla, Appaetae, Maeotae, Sindi, Toreatae, Cercetae, Taurica]—Black Sea Flood. When the evidence is assembled, a very interesting picture emerges: it appears that during the third millennium B.C., Northwest Caucasian peoples inhabited the shores of the entire Black Sea—the entire northern coast of Anatolia from the Hellespont to [Batumi], as well as the eastern coast and the basin of the Phasis, the entire Circassian coast to the strait of Kerch, the regions surrounding the Sea of Azov, and the Crimea. [Archaeological evidence suggests that their region of settlement extended westward from the Crimea as well, beyond the Bug and Dniester estuaries and at least as far as the Danube.]</div>
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“<i>Le 12, je devois m’embarquer; mais j’en fus empêché par une nouvelle qu’on eut, que des barques de Circassiens et d’Abcas croisoient sur les côtes de Mingrélie</i>” (Chardin, 1711, vol. 1, pp. 410-11).</div>
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“<i>Le 27, je partis d’Anarghie. Ma felouque étoit grande. Il y avoit près de vingt personnes, la moitié esclaves, et le reste Turcs. Je n’y avois laissé embarquer tant de gens, qu’afin de me pouvoir </i>d<i>é</i>fendre<i> des corsaires qui couroient la </i>c<i>ô</i>te” (Chardin, 1711, vol. 1, p. 412).</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>2. Abkhazian Tradition</b></span></div>
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“<i>Carzia, son visir, s’enfuit à Lexicom</i> (Letchkom), <i>qui est une principauté dans les montagnes habitués des Soüanes, et manda de-là aux Abcas de venir au secours du dadian. Ils vinrent en Mingrélie; mais au lieu de secours, ils pillèrent les lieux où ils passèrent, et se retirèrent après” </i>(Chardin, 1711, vol. 1, p. 402).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Abkhaz are linguistically and culturally unrelated to the Georgians. The Abkhaz language is agglutinative and has about 60 consonants (depending on the dialect). Though often described as having two vocalic phonemes [/a/ and /ə/], the language can be analyzed as having no phonemic vowels, with all vowel-segments arising predictably from their consonantal environment (Allen, 1965). There is also a special secret “woodsman language,” apparently unrelated to Abkhaz, which is still in use (Colarusso, 1997; Klimov, 1969, pp. 31-32). </div>
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+ (NWC, Katal Hoyuk, Black Sea Flood) + Justin Ep. 28 + De administrando imperio 42</div>
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The earliest reference to the Abkhaz is found in an inscription of Tiglath-Pileser I (1114-1076 B.C.), who mentions the “<i>Abesla</i>” as inhabiting eastern Asia Minor (Berman, 2009b). Classical writers (including Hecataeus of Miletus, Strabo, and Arrian) enumerate several Abkhazian tribes, including the Apsilae, Abasgi, and Sanigi (Berman, 2009b). The Apsilae dwelt south of the Abasgi, around the Coraxes estuary (modern Kodori river) (<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">Plontke-Lüning</span>, 2007a). [+ Pliny 6.14, Procop 4.3, Agath 2.15, 4.15] According to Procopius of Caesarea (6<sup>th</sup> century A.D.), “Beyond the Apsilii and the other end of the crescent the Abasgi dwell along the coast, and their country extends as far as the mountains of the Caucasus. Now the Abasgi have been from ancient times subjects of the Lazi, but they have always had two rulers of their own blood. One of these resided in the western part of their country, the other in the eastern part” (<i>De bellis</i> VIII.iii.12-13).</div>
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St. Andrew preached the Gospel in Abkhazia in the course of his four missionary journeys into the Black Sea (Khalvashi, 2009). According to one account, another of the apostles, Simon the Zealot, accompanied him on one of these journeys (A.D. 55), but remained behind to preach the gospel in Abkhazia, where he was martyred by the Romans at Weriosphora on the Psyrtskha river (modern Novy Afon, between Sukhumi and Gudauta) (Abkhazia – Republic of Abkhazia, 2011). According to Irma Berdzenishvili (2008), “The spread of Christianity in this area was partly due to the fact that this region served as an asylum to first Christians persecuted by the Roman Empire. ”Patrophilus (Stratophilus), bishop of Pityus (modern Pitsunda) was a participant in the Council of Nicaea in 325 A.D. </div>
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During the reign of Theodosius I (379-395 A.D.), the <i>Ala I Abasgorum</i> was stationed at the Great Oasis in Egypt (Simon, 2007).</div>
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The Abazgian rulers supplied eunuchs for service throughout the Roman empire. Procopius discusses this in some detail:</div>
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“They have suffered most cruelly at the hands of their rulers owing to the excessive avarice displayed by them. For both their kings used to take such boys of this nation as they noted having comely features and fine bodies, and dragging them away from their parents without the least hesitation they would make them eunuchs and then sell them at high prices to any persons in Roman territory who wished to buy them. They also killed the fathers of these boys immediately, in order to prevent any of them from attempting at some time to exact vengeance from the king for the wrong done their boys, and also that there might be in the country no subjects suspected by the kings. And thus the physical beauty of their sons was resulting in their destruction; for the poor wretches were being destroyed through the misfortune of fatal comeliness in their children. And it was in consequence of this that the most of the eunuchs among the Romans, and particularly at the emperor’s court, happened to be Abasgi by birth. (<i>De bellis</i> VIII.iii.15-17) </div>
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This grievous situation created great social instability and led directly to the expansion of Christianity among the Abkhaz: </div>
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“During the reign of the present Emperor Justinian the Abasgi have changed everything and adopted a more civilized standard of life. For not only have they espoused the Christian doctrine, but the Emperor Justinian also sent them one of the eunuchs from the palace, an Abasgus by birth named Euphratas, and through him commanded their kings in explicit terms to mutilate no male thereafter in this nation by doing violence to nature with the knife. This the Abasgi heard gladly, and taking courage now because of the decree of the Roman emperor they began to strive with all their might to put an end to this practice. For each one of them had to dread that at some time he would become the father of a comely child. It was at that same time that the Emperor Justinian also built a sanctuary of the Virgin in their land, and appointed priests for them, and thus brought it about that they learned thoroughly all the observances of the Christians; and the Abasgi immediately dethroned both their kings and seemed to be living in a state of freedom. Thus then did these things take place.” (Procopius, <i>De bellis</i> VIII.iii.18-21)</div>
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The Christianized Abkhaz kings gained hegemony over both Egrisi (Lazica) and Iberia in 786, and ruled most of Georgia until 1008, when power passed to the Bagratids. The Abkhaz were regarded as senior to the Georgians in nobility, and the royal style of the Georgian kings always began with “king of Abkhazhia.” In Mingrelia, the ability to speak Abkhaz was regarded among the nobility as a mark of superior status (Chirikba, 2006). Technically, the Shervashidze (Chachba) princes of Abkhazia were recognized as suzerain over the kingdom of Jiketi (Circassia) and thus took precedence over all the Circassian tribes as well. The archbishop of Pitsunda (the oldest episcopal see in the Caucasus) had seniority over all other bishops of Colchis and Iberia until the middle of the 17<sup>th</sup> century, when Turkish Islamisation of the Black Sea littoral forced the withdrawal of the Catholicos from Pitsunda to Gelati (Clogg, 1998).</div>
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During the 13<sup>th</sup> century, the Genoese established numerous trading colonies in the Black Sea, including several in the Crimea and others at Samsun, Trebizond, Lo Vati (Batumi). Early in the 14<sup>th</sup> century, several of these colonies were established in Abkhazia, including Sevastopolis (Sukhumi), Kakari (Gagra), Santa Sofia (Alahadzy), Petsonda (Pitsunda), Cavo di Buxo (Gudauta), Nikofia (Anakopia), and Tamansa/Tomasso (T’amsh). These colonies remained in Genoese hands for 200 years until they were seized by the Ottomans during the 15<sup>th</sup> century. The Genoese established a large Roman Catholic community at Sukhumi, which became the seat of a Catholic bishopric. Genoese trade brought great material prosperity to the Abkhazian coast during that period (Bgazhba, 1998).</div>
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Beginning in the 16<sup>th</sup> century, the Turks established control over several fortified places along the Black Sea coast (Sochi, Anapa, Sukhumi, X). This resulted in the gradual Islamization of the pagan Abkhaz. In 1733, the Turks destroyed the Abkhaz sacred site of Elyr and forced the prince of Abkhazia to convert to Islam (Clogg, 1998).</div>
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Later centuries were characterized by an ongoing duel between the princes of Abkhazia and the Mingrelia. In 1635, the prince of Mingrelia, Levan II Dadiani, had married Thanuria, the daughter of the prince of Abkhazia. She bore him two sons, but meanwhile he had begun an incestuous affair with Darejan, the wife of his uncle and tutor. After two years, the prince married Darejan and, according to Jean Chardin, “<i>huit jours après il renvoya sa femme honteusement et sans suite au prince des Abcas, son père, après lui avoir fait couper le nez, les oreilles et les mains. Le sujet qu’il prit pour excuser une cruauté si étrange, fut de l’accuser d’adultère avec le visir, qui se nommoit Papona; et pour le mieux persuader, il fit mettre ce visir à la bouche d’un canon, au même temps qu’il mutiloit sa femme</i>” (Chardin, 1711, vol. 1, pp. 379-80).</div>
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This outrage resulted in a “Thirty Year War” to which Chardin was a witness. This war was prosecuted with extraordinary ferocity by both sides, and expanded to involve the Ubykh, Adyge, Abazinins, and Kabardins (on the Abkhazian side), the Svans and Imeretians (in support of the Mingrelians), and also prompted several Ottoman interventions. This war resulted in an eastward expansion of Abkhaz speakers, moving the Abkhazian/Kartvelian ethnic frontier to the Inguri river (Bgazhba, 1998).</div>
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The prince of Abkhazia accepted Russian suzerainty in 1810, and the last Shervashidze prince of Abkhazia was deposed in November 1864. The Ahchipsy and Aibga clans of the Sadz tribe were the last peoples of the Caucasus to fall under Russian control (May 1864). With the end of Abkhazian independence, thousands of Muslim Abkhazians (perhaps 40% of the population) emigrated to Turkey, where their descendants dwell to this day. </div>
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While nominally Muslim or Christian, the Abkhaz have always been associated with a variety of unusual pagan practices, many of which persist to the present day. According to Procopius (6<sup>th</sup> century A.D.), “these barbarians even down to my time have worshipped groves and forests; for with a sort of barbarian simplicity they supposed the trees were gods” (<i>De bellis</i> VIII.iii.14). In later times it became customary to tie prayer-ribbons to sacred trees. This practice, still current throughout Turkey and the Caucasus, may have its origin in the Asherah-worship described in the Old Testament. On the occasion of a recent visit (October 2010) to the cave-monastery at Vardzia in southwestern Georgia, I noted a pile of tree-branches with ribbons still attached, which the monks had gathered up for destruction by burning. However, these prayer-ribbons continue to appear faster than the monks can remove them! </div>
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The Abkhaz had an almost symbiotic relationship with trees. Traditional Abkhaz dwellings were built of wicker and widely separated, “such that a foreign traveller might even not consider himself to be in the centre of a village at all rather than in some uninhabited territory” (Anchabadze, 1998, pp. 241-242). A passage from an Abkhaz folktale illustrates this phenomenon: “But the youngest brother walked and walked and reached such wild forests as he had never before seen. In its very depths he suddenly saw that he was in the yard of the witch Arupap. She was sitting under a plane tree and was resting” (Berman, 2009b, p. 143). This custom enabled them to find immediate refuge in the surrounding forest in times of emergency. Aelian (early 3<sup>rd</sup> century A.D.) writes that “the Colchians [<i>sic</i>] put the dead in leather skins; they sew them up and hang them from trees” (<i>Varia historia</i> 4.1). While Aelian is mistaken in attributing this practice to the Colchians, it is well attested among the Abkhaz. The dead were wrapped in skins, rugs, or placed in wooden boxes, which were then suspended from trees (Clogg, 1998). The seven sacred groves of Abkhazia (Lykhny, Elyr, Dydrypsh, Pitsunda, Ach’andara, Psou, T’q<sup>w</sup>’archal) functioned (and continue to function) as cemeteries, places of ancestor-worship, and as the <i>loci </i>of pagan religious cults (Clogg, 1998). Each lineage had its own sacred place (<i>anycha</i>), which might be a mountain, a grove or sacred tree, a spring, a river, or a cliff. Abkhazian paganism was totemic and animistic, each family being linked by its surname to some plant, animal, or natural phenomenon. </div>
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The Abkhaz gods required sacrifices, which were placed on the <i>a-š</i><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>⁰</i></span><i>әmk’ʲat </i>(“a wicker table on four legs on which they put the sacrificial meat during pagan rituals”) (Kaslandziya, 2005, quoted by Chirikba, 2006, p. 41).</div>
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Jacob Reineggs, who travelled through the region during the 1770s, provides an interesting description of Abkhaz pagan observances: “In the first days of May the Abkhaz gathered in a dense and dark sacred forest, the trees of which were considered inviolable for fear of offending some supreme being. In this grove, beside a large iron cross, there lived hermits who had gathered from the people significant remunerations for prayers for their health and success. Everyone who had come to the grove brought with them wooden crosses which they then placed anywhere they could find grass, and acquaintances meeting in the forest would exchange these crosses as a sign of friendship” (Clogg, 1998, p. 212).</div>
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Paganism has remained vigorous among the Abkhazians even into modern times: gatherings around the sacred oak tree at Lykhny sometimes attract thousands of worshippers. In at least one instance, Soviet authorities found it necessary to burn down a local “prayer tree,” and during the crisis of the first Georgian-Abkhazian conflict (1992-93), thousands of Abkhazians participated in a collective act of worship at the sacred mountain of Dydrypsh (Clogg, 1998).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The supreme god of the Abkhaz pantheon is Antʂ<sup>w</sup>a, “the creator, in whom all the other gods are contained” (Clogg, 1998, p. 213). This name appears to derive from the Abkhaz plural form <i>anatʂ<sup>w</sup>a</i> (“mothers”). This is one of many indications that the Abkhaz were a matriarchal society until relatively recent times. It should also be noted that the Abkhaz pantheon comprises more deities than that of the Circassians, and includes a higher proportion of goddesses. These phenomena may reflect a transition from matriarchy to patriarchy, which has progressed further among the Circassians than among their Abkhaz congeners. Other important Abkhaz deities include Afy (the god of thunder & lightning), Shaʃ<sup>w</sup>y (the smithy-god), Dzyzlan (the goddess of water), Dziwaw (the rain-goddess), and Anana-G<sup>w</sup>nda (goddess of the hunt, bees, and fertility) (Clogg, 1998). Aytar, the god of horned cattle, “regarded by Abkhazians as one in seven fractions,” was “especially revered.” A cycle of prayers to Aytar began on the first Monday of Lent, accompanied by offerings of ritual dumplings (<i>a-xºažº</i>) filled with ritually clean cheese known as <i>ack<sup>j</sup>ašº</i> (“sacred cheese”) (Chirikba, 2006, p. 58). His name appears to be a corruption of the Greek<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"> </span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;"> ¸Agiov Qeo/dwrov</span><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"> </span>(St. Theodore). This refers to St. Theodore Tyro, a Roman soldier stationed in Pontus who converted to Christianity and was martyred early in the 4<sup>th</sup> century. The church at Anakopia was consecrated to him (p. 55). The god Anapra (<i>Napər-nəxa</i>) is another example of this kind of syncretism. Anapra was the Abkhaz god of internal diseases and “the patron saint of the sick” (the <i>nəxa</i> element means “shrine”); however, his name is corrupted from the Greek <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">ÂOnou/friov </span>(St. Onuphrius, an Egyptian hermit of the late 4<sup>th</sup> century) (p. 56).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>As with other peoples of the Northwest Caucasus, hunting was the major focus of Abkhaz culture, and was a highly ritualized activity. For example, the <i>a-psә-mk’ʲat </i>was “a special place where the hunters put the bones of wild animals killed and eaten by them.” This word was derived from <i>a-psә </i>“soul” (Chirikba, 2006, p. 41).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>+ Prince of the Dead + Zoschan = Dzyzlan (?) [PAPER]</div>
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The majority of the Muslim Abkhaz emigrated to Turkey in consequence of the Russian annexation of Abkhazia (1864). However, Abkhaz Muslims habitually consumed wine and pork, fasted during both Ramadan and Lent, and many had never seen a Qur’an. Abkhaz funerals were often conducted with both Islamic and Christian ceremonies (Clogg, 1998). “In reality, the Abkhaz have never related seriously to either Christianity or Islam” (Paula Garb, quoted in Clogg, 1998, p. 206). They have been described as “simultaneously pagan, Christian, Muslim and atheist (G. Smyr, quoted in Clogg, 1998, p. 216). The 19<sup>th</sup>-century Georgian linguist Nikolai Marr commented that the Orthodox clergy “could be more proud of their building of architectural monuments than of their building of religion in the souls of the Abkhaz” (Clogg, 1998, p. 210). The traditional Abkhaz code of ethics, known as <i>apswara</i> (“what it is to be an Abkhazian), “plays a far more significant role than religion as the conscience of the people” (Clogg, 1998, p. 217). It emphasizes such values as goodness, f<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">airness, honor, shunning between a daughter-in-law and her in-laws (Anchabadze, 1998; Chlaidze, 2003, cf. “Согласие,” pp. 194-196),</span> and the unquestioned authority of the elderly (smoking, laughing, and sloppiness being forbidden in their presence) (Anchabadze, 1998).</div>
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“Mutual economic assistance and support facilitated an atmosphere of prosperity and provided the necessary income. Amongst the Abkhazians there was not a single beggar, which speaks of the relative justice of their social system” (Lak’oba, 1998, p. 77).</div>
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Among the Abkhaz, “the most honourable occupations were military activity and hunting. A community was reminiscent of a military camp, and it lived in a distinctive ‘military readiness.’ The main reason for the close unity of all the members of the community was the threat from outside (such as raids of neighbouring peoples, the selling of prisoners-of-war, hostile relations between communities and privileged families, cattle-rustling), which bonded yet more strongly the highest estates with the lowest within the union of society” (Lak’oba, 1998, p. 77). </div>
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Singing was of the greatest importance in Abkhazian culture and was believed to have supernatural power. Hunters sang a special song before setting out to assure success in the hunt. There were songs for the gathering of a lineage and for the performance of a dancing bear. Songs were sung by those gathered around a sickbed and functioned like medicine, with special songs to cure measles and St. Vitus dance (Clogg, 1998).</div>
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Abkhaz society was essentially matriarchal. Many religious rituals required the participation of a “blameless old woman” and a “prayer woman” (Johansons, 1972). The Abkhaz <i>acaaju</i> (“questioner”) was a female prophet and oracle. “The social position of the <i>acaaju</i> was very strong, and her opinion was counted on in all public affairs, for example, even in the hearing of witnesses in criminal procedures. There were some among them who had succeeded to fame among all the Abkhazians and to whom people from distant regions came in order to get advice. In light of their effectual patronage, many families made efforts to establish kinship with them, which was achieved most commonly through their adoption.” (Johansons, 1972, ¶12)</div>
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Since her vatic powers resulted from being possessed by a god, the acaaju was always addressed as a male. Since some of them were subject to Afy and others to Zoschan, “they were given to living in mutual enmity” (Johansons, 1972, ¶3). </div>
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The main task of the <i>acaaju</i> was to ascertain who had caused a specific illness, in order to find out the necessary remedies. The cause was most often a neglected sacrifice or a false oath. The <i>acaaju</i>, therefore, worked in close collaboration with the smith, since oaths were traditionally sworn in the smithy (Johansons, 1972).</div>
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The Abkhaz <i>acaaju</i> had at her disposal three methods of divination: <i>vaticinatio</i> (first in order of importance), favomancy (divination by beans), and astrology. She would first perform an animal sacrifice, inviting the god to possess her and give her prophetic utterance. If her vatic powers proved inadequate to the task, the <i>acaaju</i> would use favomancy to find out the name of the transgressor.</div>
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Favomancy appears to have come originally from Persia or Arabia. The usual method (as still practiced in Kazakhstan, where it is known as <i>qumalaq</i>), requires that 41 broad beans be divided into three piles. From these piles beans are removed four at a time until each pile is reduced to a remainder of one, two, three, or four beans. The resulting numbers are entered as the top row of a three-by-three grid. Then the process is repeated to fill up the middle row, and again to fill up the bottom row. The three rows are associated with the past, the present, and the future, and the resulting patterns are interpreted according to established rules. Some of these rules had an astrological dimension; for example, one bean in each position in the center row was known as “the three stars,” while in Eastern Europe the pattern 3-1-1 in the top row was known as “the comet” (Powers, 2011).</div>
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If neither <i>vaticinatio</i> nor favomancy provided a satisfactory answer, the <i>acaaju</i> had recourse to astrology (Johansons, 1972, ¶5). This was clearly some form of Interrogatory Astrology, though I have been unable to learn any details about it. However, a few details about Abkhaz astrological beliefs have emerged from my reading. The Abkhazians had deities associated with the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth (Clogg, 1998). The Abkhaz astrological system appears to have been organized around the seven days of the week. Each lineage had its own unique customs and rituals, including the custom of amʂʃara, by which certain types of work and other activities (e.g. weddings, funerals, washing) could not be performed on one or more specific days of the week (Clogg, 1998). Such a system is clearly parallel to the Hellenistic <i>dies Aegyptiaci</i>. [+ Ryan re. Russian system] Abkhazian folktales reveal that the Abkhaz were aware of small increments of time and of subtle changes in the angular relationships among the heavenly bodies. For example, [Prince of the Dead]. Another / a similar example is found in the tale X“The Maiden who stopped the Sun” [Chlaidze], where . . .</div>
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The rainbow was believed to cause certain illnesses, including jaundice, general weakness, and vacillation of character, which were thought to result form entering the water at the moment the Rainbow drank from it. In such cases, the Abkhaz “prayer woman” and her female assistants performed a special ceremony. They led the patient to the bank of a stream, placed offerings on both banks, and threw a yarn bridge across from one bank to the other. The women recited prayers to the Water Mother, the Water Father, and the Rainbow, casting food-offerings into the water. A previously-prepared doll was carried around the patient several times, then placed in a gourd with a lighted candle and released into the river as a substitute for the sick person, who was sent home and warned not to look back. + RAIN DOLL ʒə-ywow “ritual prayer for rain, in which figures a specially made doll” (Chirikba, 2006, p. 56). + MIRRORS (obsidian mirrors, Katal Huyuk; Prince of the Dead, gold/silver mirror) + MY SHORT PAPER re. Prince of the Dead</div>
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FOSTERING “But the youngest brother walked and walked and reached such wild forests as he had never before seen. In its very depths he suddenly saw that he was in the yard of the witch Arupap. She was sitting under a plane tree and was resting. The young man at once guessed who was before him. He rushed towards the witch and, quickly pronouncing the words: “Whether you eat me, whether you cook me, yet I am your son”, he kissed her breast” (143) Berman, Caucasus</div>
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“This gesture symbolizes an adoption. Often a man in desperate straits and fleeing from his enemies would accost a woman in this way and thus gain the protection of her family as an adopted son. Even someone who was subject to blood vengeance because he had killed a member of a clan could find sanctuary within that clan by forcing himself on one of its women in this way, thus becoming a member of the clan that had originally sworn vengeance on him” (Colarusso, 2002, pp. 33-34).</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>3. Abazin Tradition</b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Abazins are a branch of the Abkhaz who migrated northward through the Klukhori Pass into the region of Abazinia during the 13<sup>th</sup>-15<sup>th</sup> centuries (Tapanta tribe), with a further wave of migration (Shkarua tribe) during the 18<sup>th</sup> and 19<sup>th</sup> centuries (Abazins, 2011; Chirikba, 2006). Their language and culture show little divergence from those of the Abkhaz.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>One of the tales in the Abazin Nart-corpus (“Qaydukh Fortress,” Colarusso, 2002, pp. 257-259) features the well-known Abkhazian practice of favomancy (divination by beans). In this case, a wife tosses the beans twice to divine her absent husband’s activities. Colarusso (p. 259n) provides the following note: “Scattering beans and then divining the future from their pattern was a favored means of fortune telling in the Caucasus.” </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>In the course of the <i>amhad</i><span style="font: 13.0px Helvetica;"><i>ʒ</i></span><i>rra</i> (emigration of Islamic peoples form the Caucasus to Turkey in consequence of the Russian annexation), the precise method used in Abkhazian favomancy was forgotten. If these references to “tossing” and “scattering” are accurate, it suggests that the Abkhazians employed a different method from the one current in Eastern Europe (as described above). The implication of this terminology is that, rather than counting them off by fours to obtain a remainder, the beans were scattered to form random patterns which were then analyzed or interpreted somehow (perhaps in a way analogous to the Turkish practice of reading tea-leaves).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>My reading has revealed only a few scattered references to Abazin beliefs about celestial phenomena. A meteorite was regarded as an object of supernatural power and was known as an <i>abra</i> stone (Colarusso, 2002, p. 290; I am unable to explain the derivation of this term, which does not appear to have any counterpart in Abkhaz). In another passage, the Nart Sosruquo does battle with the mysterious Tutarash, who is described as an inchoate black form whose “eyes shone like two stars, eyes in size like the morning star” (p. 237). This may be a reference to Venus (in its two manifestations as morning star and evening star), or it could refer to the relatively rare appearance of the two morning stars Venus and Mercury together before sunrise. Colarusso (pp. 241-42) provides a very interesting etymology of the name Tutarash. He identifies it as a very early Indo-European form <i>tw-astr</i>, meaning “two stars.” He assigns this form to “Twastrian,” his designation for a “first-wave” Indo-European language from Central Asia, connected to Tocharian. If this etymology is correct, it points to very early contacts between Northwest Caucasian and Indo-European peoples. The name Tutarash is thus connected to a much older linguistic stratum than the Nart epos with which it became associated. These contacts must have occurred many centuries before the irruption of the Alans into the Caucasus.</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>4. Ubykh Tradition</b></span></div>
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The Ubykh, whose territories lay just north of the Abkhaz, were a Northwest Caucasian people of great antiquity. They were known in classical times as the Bruchi (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Brou=xoi</span>), a Greek distortion of <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>tʷaχ</i></span>, the Ubykh self-designation. According to Procopius (6<sup>th</sup> century), “beyond the confines of the Abasgi along the Caucasus range dwell the Bruchi, who are between the Abasgi and the Alani, while along the coast of the Euxine Sea the Zechi have their habitation” (<i>De bellis</i> VIII.iv.1). This implies that the Bruchi lived in the interior at that time, with no access to the coast. In later times they occupied the valley of the Borgys river (modern Psou, which forms the border between Abkhazia and the Russian Federation). The Ubykh emigrated <i>en masse</i> to Turkey in 1864; their language, which had the largest known consonant inventory (84 consonants), has been extinct since 1992 (Ubykh people, 2011). The Ubykh are known to have practiced favomancy as well as scapulomancy. I have so far found no reference to their astrological practice.</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>5. Circassian Tradition</b></span></div>
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“<i>Ces peoples sont tout-à-fait sauvages; ils ont été autrefois chrétiens, à présent ils n’ont aucune religion, non pas même la naturelle: car je compte pour rien quelques usages superstitieux qui semblent venir des chrétiens et des mahométans leurs voisins. Ils habitent en des cabanes de bois, et vont presque nuds. Chaque homme est ennemi juré de ceux d’alentour. Les habitans se prennent esclaves et se vendent les uns les autres aux Turcs et aux Tartares. Les femmes labourent la terre</i>” (Chardin, 1711, vol. 1, p. 147).</div>
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The Circassians were the most numerous and important of the peoples of the Northwest Caucasus. In ancient times, this linguistic phylum appears to have been much more extensive, occupying the entire coast of the Black Sea from the mouth of the Danube through the Crimea and the Sea of Azov, as well as the entire eastern littoral and the southern littoral as far west as Samsun (Jaimoukha, 2001 [this assumes identification of the Maikop culture with NWC]). There were still Circassian settlements in the Crimea as late as 1400 (Allen, 1971). There is good reason to associate this culture with the pre-Hittite Hattians of Asia Minor and (ultimately) with the prehistoric site of Çatalhöyük (<i>circa</i> 7500 B.C.). Indeed, if the “Black Sea Deluge Hypothesis” is correct, this was the people group displaced by the catastrophic flood which ensued when the Mediterranean broke through into the Black Sea (previously a freshwater lake) <i>circa</i> 5,500 B.C. (Ballard, 2001). </div>
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Circassians (or proto-Circassians) are mentioned in in Hittite and Egyptian sources (15<sup>th</sup>-13<sup>th</sup> centuries B.C.), where they are designated as “Kaskians” (Kaska, Kashkai, Kasku). They occupied northern Asia Minor as far west as the Propontis (Sea of Marmara), and appear to have been migrating eastward throughout this period (Toumanoff, 1963, p. 55). The twelve tribes of the Kaska were united to form a kingdom under Piyapili, and sacked the Hittite capital (circa 1330 B.C.) and, in alliance with the proto-Kartvelian Mushki, they played a role in the final collapse of the Hittite empire (<i>circa</i> 1200 B.C.). These peoples now occupied the former Hattian lands of north-central Anatolia (Kaskians, 2011). After their defeat by Tiglath-Pileser I (1112 B.C.), the Kashkai withdrew northwards into western Georgia, where they mixed with the proto-Kartvelian Mushki and overthrew the ancient Kartvelian kingdom of Æa. They were subsequently known to the Urartians as Qulẖa, from which the Greek designation <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Ko/lxiv</span><span style="font: 9.0px SLGreek;"> </span>(Colchis) is derived (Toumanoff, 1963). Another branch of the Kaskians retreated to the south, where they established themselves in Cappadocia (Kaskians, 2011).</div>
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Structural and lexical similarities between Circassian and the pre-Hittite Hattic language of north-central Anatolia have led many linguists to posit a genetic relationship (Chirikba, 1998). The name “Hatto-Kaskian” has been proposed for the resulting linguistic phylum (Kaskian language, 2011). It is extremely interesting to note that <i>Kašku</i> was the name of the Hattic moon god (Kaskians, 2011), a fact which correlates well with what is known about the matriarchal tendencies of the ancient Northwest Caucasian peoples. The Amazons of Greek myth appear to take their name from a root meaning “moon” (the Abkhaz word for the moon is <i>amza</i>).</div>
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At the time when the Greeks first ventured into the region, the shores of the <i>palus Maeotis </i>(sea of Azov) were inhabited by the Maeotae (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Maiw=tai</span>), a group of Circassian tribes. Owing to pressure from numerous Scythian tribes migrating into the region during the late 1<sup>st</sup> millennium B.C., these Circassian tribes eventually withdrew from the coast into the mountain valleys of Circassia. They were known to classical writers as the <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Zugoi/</span> (Zygi, Zygii, also <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Zilxoi/, Zixoi/</span>) and the Cercetae. According to Arrian (<i>Periplus</i> 18.3), the Achaious (Sochi) river formed the boundary between the Zilchoi and the Sanigai, an Abkhazian tribe dwelling to the south of them. Arrian notes that Stachemphax, the king of the Zilchoi in his day (132 A.D.), was a Roman client-king. </div>
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During the Middle Ages, largely as a result of the destruction of the kingdom of Alania by the Mongols, the Circassians and Kabardians spread northward from the Caucasus and came to dominate the north Caucasus plain (Nichols, 2007).</div>
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The principal occupations of the Circassians were piracy and slave-raiding. Although loosely organized, the various Circassian principalities were regarded as components of the kingdom of Jiketi (Zikia), which was formally subject to the prince of Abkhazia. </div>
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The western Circassians comprised the Adyge proper, while the eastern Circassians who inhabited the northern slopes of the central Caucasus were known as Kabardins. The Kabardin language is the most archaic branch of the Northwest Caucasian phylum, suggesting that these people withdrew into the mountains at a very early time. Between 1739 and 1774, Kabarda was recognized by the European powers as a sovereign state by the terms of the Treaty of Belgrade (1739); by the terms of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774), the Turks relinquished Kabarda to the Russian sphere of influence. The Kabardin princes remained independent, however, until the Russians invaded the region in 1822. Two other branches of the Circassians, the Papaghis and the Kasogs, inhabited the Taman peninsula (mentioned in mediaeval sources from the 8<sup>th</sup> to 11<sup>th</sup> centuries); the Kasogs may have been ancestral to the Kabardins (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 47).</div>
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Julius von Klaproth writes of the Circassians that “a commodity of which they are more particularly in want is salt: this they need not only for themselves but also for their cattle, especially the sheep, which die in great numbers unless they are supplied with it. They therefore purchase it at a very high price, as contraband, of the Tsehernomorzians and of our Nogays, in whose country it is found in ponds, . . . In the whole tract beyond the Ckuban there is no salt, except in the rivulet Kasma, which falls into the Ckuban eight wrests below Protschnoi Okop, and to which therefore they frequently drive their flocks.” (1814, p. 266)</div>
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When they sat in council, the Circassian princes used a special language called <i>chakobza</i>. This language was unrelated to Circassian, and the common people were not allowed to speak it. They held “six-week secret sessions in isolated huts, after the harvest. All participants had to wear masks, so that existing inter-family blood-feud vendettas would not interfere with their training” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 29). This phenomenon is comparable to the secret “men’s houses” and “men’s unions” of Daghestan, and may suggest that the Circassian princes and nobility were an intrusive element (Allen, 1971, pp. 29-30). There was also a “women’s language” that was formerly spoken throughout the entire North Caucasus. This language is reported to have been monosyllabic and tonal (Colarusso, 1997). This extremely curious phenomenon suggests the survival of submerged linguistic elements from the remote past. </div>
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The Circassians developed a strict caste-system, probably due to “the necessity of regulating the social status of the large number of slaves whom they captured in their raids against the peoples both of the Colchian plain and of the Crimea” (Allen, 1971, p. 29). </div>
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The Circassians were regarded as the purest representatives of the Caucasian race. Circassian slaves were highly prized and were present in large numbers among the Ottoman Turks. The Circassian <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>mamlūks</i></span> (“slaves”) became so numerous in Egypt that they succeeded in gaining political control of the country, where the Circassian Burji dynasty ruled from 1382 to 1517. Even after the installation of an Ottoman pasha in 1517, real power remained with the <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>mamlūks</i></span>. By the 18<sup>th</sup> century, they included large numbers of Georgians as well as Circassians. Murad Bey (<i>circa</i> 1750-1801) and Ibrahim Bey (1735-1817), both Georgian <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>mamlūks</i></span> (the latter the son of an Orthodox priest from K’akheti), opposed the French invasion of Egypt (1798-1801). Although they were superb horsemen and fearless warriors, the <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>mamlūks</i></span> were unable to face a disciplined European army.</div>
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As a result of Russian incursions into Kabarda, five Circassian princes (Kassim Kambulatowicz,<span style="font: 12.0px Times;"> </span>Gawrila Kambulatowicz, Onyszko Kudadek, Solgien Szymkowicz, and Temruk Szymkowicz) emigrated with 300 warriors to Poland in 1562, where they were enrolled among the Polish nobility with the surname “Czerkaski” (Kruszynski, 2005). Other Circassian families emigrated to Russia during the 16<sup>th</sup> century, several of whom adopted the surname “Cherkasskii.” (Bushkovitch, 2006). One of these Circassian nobles, Prince Alexander Bekovich-Cherkasskii, led the disastrous Russian expedition against Khiva (1717-18). Of his force of 7000, only ten men were spared and sent back alive to inform the Tsar of the disaster.</div>
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TURKS—RUSSIAN CONQUEST—EXILE (beginning with Crimea)</div>
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Circassian culture was regulated by the <i>Adyge xabze</i> (“Circassian code of conduct”), a set of social values and expectations comparable to the Abkhazian <i>apswara</i>. The Circassians cultivated a pantheon of about 60 deities presided over by the supreme god Theshxwe, corresponding to the Abkhazian Antʂ<sup>w</sup>a, “the creator, in whom all the other gods are contained” (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 146). [However, the Abkhazian pantheon was larger (about 100 deities), and included a higher proportion of goddesses. This appears to reflect a late-prehistoric “transition from a matriarchate to patriarchy,” by which female deities lost much of their original significance (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 139). This transition is probably connected to a similar phenomenon among the Kartvelians, resulting in a counterintuitive gender-reversal in the words for “father” (Georgian <i>mama</i>) and “mother” (Georgian <i>deda</i>), and in the words for “sun” (Georgian <i>mze</i> [feminine], Abkhaz <i>amra</i> [masculine]) and “moon” (Georgian <i>mtvare</i> [masculine], Abkhaz <i>amza</i> [feminine]).] (MOVE?)</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Important deities in the Circassian pantheon included Llepsch (the god of the smithy), Schible (the god of thunder and lightning), Zchithe (the god of the wind), Mezgwasche (“forest-lady”), Mezithe (“forest-god”), and Sozeresh (one of the Narts, borrowed from the Ossetian religious tradition. These gods were thought to inhabit certain trees and sacred groves. “For Sozeresh, a pear sapling was cut down in the forest and disbranched. Almost all households had such an image. On the day of his festival, the effigy was brought inside the house in a grand ceremony with accompanying music and to cheers form all the members of the family, who complimented him on his arrival. The idol was covered with little candles and a piece of cheese was attached to the top. … Afterwards, the idol was taken to the yard where it stayed without any mark of reverence until the next holiday.” (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 142) Other sacred places included the sacred mountain Julat (Tatartup), as well as certain rivers (Jaimoukha, 2001).<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;"> </span>Ar<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">x</span>ºan-ar<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">x</span>ºanə<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ź, a chthonic being described as a </span>giant serpent or lizard-man, ruled the realm of the dead (Colarusso, 2002, p. 33).</div>
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The Circassians formerly practiced human sacrifice, as revealed by the presence of both human and animal bones in ancient burial mounds. This was apparently done to assure a good harvest. Other ceremonies included processions around sacred trees by worshippers singing and bearing torches. There was also a special circular dance called <i>wij </i>(or <i>x’wrey</i>) (Jaimoukha 2001). </div>
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Like the Abkhaz, the Circassians also used songs as medicine. Those afflicted with smallpox were rocked in a swing to the accompaniment of a special chant. A related practice was the <i>sch’apsche’e</i>, a vigil round the sick-bed whose main purpose was to keep the patient awake: “evil spirits were believed to be waiting for the patient to fall asleep to take possession of his body” (Jaimoukha 2001, p. 140). Several instances of this are described in the Abkhaz tale, <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">А</span><span style="font: 12.0px 'Lucida Grande';">ҧ</span><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">сцәа</span>ҳ<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">а дызнықәуаз ахаҵа </span>(“The man who used to swear by the Prince of the Dead,” Hewitt, 2005, pp. 142-150; analysis in Grove, 2008a).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“The world of the ancient Circassians was filled with monsters, dragons, behemoths with several heads and eyes, one-eyed colossi, giant-killers, wood elves, creatures with canine heads and bodies of oxen, weird crews of witches and warlocks, old women with iron teeth and breasts thrown over their shoulders” (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 144). Among these was the <i>wid</i>, a shape-shifting witch who was believed to have killed her own children, and the <i>almesti</i> (“wild woman”), described as “a naked female with vertical eyes and flowing hair” (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 145). One witch who appears in Circassian folklore bears the colorful name Kºə<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">x</span>arayna-ḥaabzəwədə (“Bitch-witch of the flying wagon”) (Colarusso, 2002, p. 33). Circassian witches were believed to bring calamity by casting the Evil Eye, “though there were more elaborate methods” (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 144).</div>
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Like the Abkhaz, the Circassians were characterized by their stubborn adherance to paganism and by a tendency toward religious syncretism. Christianity was introduced to Circassia during the reign of the emperor Justinian (6<sup>th</sup> century), who dispatched many priests to the region. The first bishopric of Circassia was established near Nalchik. Numerous churches were built, but when Georgian rule came to an end in the 15<sup>th</sup> century, Christian churches were destroyed and the people reverted to paganism (Jaimoukha, 2001). The Circassian cult of fire-worship may be an even older remnant of Zoroastrian influence. Later Persian influence resulted in the Circassian observance of the Shi’ite holiday of ‘<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>Āshūrā’ </i></span>(commemorating the death of Imam Husayn at the battle of Karbala) (Jaimoukha, 2001). Beginning in the 16<sup>th</sup> century, the Turkish presence along the Circassian coast resulted in the conversion of many Circassians to Islam. This process was greatly escalated following the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (1774): The Turks in the meantime were busily engaged along the Cherkess coast. With the help of French engineers they built the strong fortress of Anapa to offset the loss of Azov; and while they fortified Anakalia, Sukhum-Kalé and Poti, their agents among the mountain tribes were active in carrying on fierce religious propaganda against the Russians. Julius von Klaproth observes that “so lately as forty years since the Tscherkessians lived almost without religion, though they called themselves Mosslemin [<i>sic</i>], according to their pronunciation <i>Busserman</i>. They were not circumcised, and had neither messdsheds nor priests, with the exception of a few simple mullas, who came to them from Axai and Endery. They proved themselves Mohammedans by little else than their abstinence from swine’s flesh and wine. They buried their dead indeed after the Mohammedan fashion, and their marriage were performed in the same manner. Polygamy, though allowed, was rare; and the princes and chief usdens, at stated times of the day, repeated their Arabic prayers, of which they understood not one word. The common people, on the other hand, lived without any religious observances, and all days were alike to them. Of Greek Christianity, which was propagated in the Kabardah in the time of Zar Iwan Wassiliewitsch, no traces are left, at least among the people, though ruins of ancient churches and grave-stones with crosses yet exist in the country. Ever since the peace of Kütschük Kanardshi in 1774 the Porte has endeavoured to spread the religion of Mohammed, by means of ecclesiastical emissaries, in the Caucasus, and especially among the Tscherkessians; and in regard to the latter at least it has attained its aim; to the accomplishment of which the celebrated Isaak Effendi, who was in the pay of the Turks, principally contributed” (1814, pp. 316-317). Circassian and Kabardian Islamic clergy were trained in Daghestan, far to the east. The degree to which the Circassians embraced Islamic orthodoxy may be seen in the fact that at the time of the great Circassian [X] (exile to Turkey), many of the emigrants took their pigs with them to Turkey. Indeed, “the co-existence in the same [Kabardian] family of Orthodox Christians and Muslims was practically a unique phenomenon in the history of Islam” (C. Lemercier-Quelquejay, 1992, p. 27).</div>
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The thoroughgoing paganism of the Circassians is illustrated in the following anecdote transmitted by the Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi, a contemporary of Jean Chardin who visited the region during the 1660s: “God is my witness that this took place. One day we were guests in a certain village and the Circassian who was our host wished to do a good deed. He went outside where he tarried a while. When he returned he brought a dinner-spread of elk skin, also a wooden trough—like a small vault or portico—full of honey and other troughs with cheese and pasta (millet gurel). ‘Eat, O guests, may it be permitted, for health of my father soul,’ he said (in ungrammatical Tatar). We were starving, as though we had been released from Ma‘noghlu’s prison, and we laid into the honey so fast that our eyes could not keep up with our hands. But the honey was full of strange hairs that we kept pulling out of our mouths and placing on the spread. ‘Eat,’ said the Circassian. ‘This my father honey.’ Our hunger being abated, we continued to eat the honey at a slower pace, separating out the hairs. Meanwhile, Ali Can Bey, a native of Taman in Crimea, came in. ‘What are you eating, Evliya Efendi?’ ‘Join us,’ I replied. ‘It’s a kind of hairy honey. I wonder if it was stored in a goatskin or a sheepskin.’ Ali Can, who knew Circassian, asked our host where the honey came from. The Circassian broke out weeping. ‘I took from my father grave,’ he said. I understood the words, but didn’t quite grasp the import. Ali Can explained, ‘Last month his father died and he placed the corpse in a box on a branch of a big tree in the courtyard outside. Honeybees colonized the area around the groin and penis. Now, as a special favour, he has offered you honey with his father’s pubic hairs. These are the hairs you have been separating while eating the honey. Rather than excrement of bee, eat excrement of old man!’ Ali Can said this and went out. I followed him, with my gorge rising and my liver fairly bursting. ‘What kind of trick has this pimp of an infidel played on us?’ I cried. Then what should I see? Our Circassian host also came out, climbed up the tree where his father was and refastened the lid of the coffin-box, all the while weeping and eating the horrible honey. When he descended form the tree, he said, ‘Hajji! When want honey, I bring you much father soul honey. Just say prayer.’ This was certainly a strange and disturbing event.” (Evliya Çelebi, 2010b, pp. 253-54).</div>
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The Circassian soothsayers and fortune-tellers (<i>thegwrimaghwe</i>) employed a wide variety of magical and divinatory practices. These included scapulomancy (mamisch) and favomancy: “Haricot beans were thrown to tell somebody’s fortune, mainly by old women. In later times, divination by coffee-grounds, apparently a Turkish influence, became fashionable” (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 146). They also practiced oneiromancy: “Seeing eggs in sleep predicted snowfall. Seeing oneself in sleep standing on a height presaged well” (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 145). Like the Abkhaz, the Circassians had numerous superstitions concerning mirrors: “Lovers who looked simultaneously in the same mirror separated soon after. . . . Other presages of evil included keeping the dead at home at night, rocking an empty cradle, breaking a mirror, antagonizing one’s neighbours, and talking about the dead while travelling at night” (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 145).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Circassians also had a rich body of meteorological, calendrical, and astrological lore, which has much relevance to the present study.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Like the Kartvelians, the Circassians attributed evil powers to the wind. To avert this evil, they made supplications to the wind-god Zchithe. They also had a rain-making ceremony comparable to those practiced among the Abkhaz and by the peoples of Daghestan far to the east: “In times of droughts, a procession carrying an effigy of the goddess of rain, Hentsiygwasche, marched through the stricken village with supplications for rain. The households along the route poured water on the idol, which in one form of the rite resembled the shape of a cross, apparently a Christian import to the ancient ceremony” (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 142). </div>
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The god Schible presided over thunder and lightning. As in other parts of the Caucasus, any spot struck by lightning was regarded as sacred. The Circassians commemorated lightning strikes by singing a special song. Persons struck by lightning were regarded as having been selected by a god or angel for special favor and were honored in a special ceremony in which the victim’s parents celebrated his new status. During this ceremony, the celebrants listened carefully for peels of thunder, and prayed for its return (Jaimoukha, 2001). </div>
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While each deity in the Circassian pantheon had one or more consecrated days, the days sacred to Schible could not be predicted even by means of augury or astrology. The first three days of spring were consecrated to Sozerash, and the spring equinox was the most sacred day in the Circassian calendar. It marked the beginning of the New Year, and it was believed that the souls of the dead returned to visit their ancestral homes on this day, but would only do so if the hearth-fire had remained lit throughout the entire preceding year. “It was believed that the soul returned first to air, then to water and finally to earth, with an interval of one week in between. … The festivities were initiated with a rite of sacrifice called Maf’aschhe Jed (Sacrificial Hen), in which a black hen was immolated on the altar of the hearth. After the offering had been made, the members of the household whose smoke kept issuing for a whole year assembled in front of the hearth. The elder then said the prayers” (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 148). </div>
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Though staunchly pagan, many Circassians observed Easter by abstaining from eggs during the 15 days (one-half lunar cycle) preceding Easter. Shorter intervals of time were also observed. For example, “fingernails had to be clipped in the morning, toe-nails in the evening” (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 145). This practice finds a parallel in Hesiod’s <i>Opera & dies</i>: “At a cheerful festival of the gods do not cut the withered from the quick upon that which has five branches with bright steel” (ll. 742-743); as well as in the Georgian<i> lunaria</i> found in N-503, which discourage trimming one’s hair and beard on the 13<sup>th</sup>, 14<sup>th</sup>, and 25<sup>th</sup> days of the lunar month. </div>
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The Moon figured prominently in Circassian thought. The shape of the crescent Moon was believed to have provided the prototype for the sickle. Lunar eclipses were thought to presage epidemics and the spread of contagion (Jaimoukha, 2001).</div>
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The starry heavens were of great significance to the Circassians. According to one myth, Peqwe, the god of the fields, “took refuge in a spider web which he wove deep in the heavens” (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 139). The Circassians practiced astrology, which they called<i> vaghwaplhe</i> (“star gazing”). “There is some evidence that the cromlechs found in Circassian and Abkhazia served as observation posts of celestial bodies, and were used to predict natural phenomena, including the weather” (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 146). The Circassians recognized various constellations, including Ursa Major (<i>Vaghwezeshiybl</i>; also called <i>Zºaɣºabәna</i>, “star family”) and the Pleiades, which were associated with seven women just as in Greek mythology (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 146; Colarusso, 2002, pp. 78, 101, 103). The Milky Way was called <i>Shixw Lhaghwe</i> (“milky footpath”) (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 146; Colarusso, 2002, p. 103). The planet Mars was known as <i>Ax’shem Vaghwe</i> (“evening star”). A comet was called <i>vaghwe abrej</i> (“star horseman”) (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 146). I have so far been unable to discover any specific details about the Circassian practice of astrology, apart from a number of superstitious beliefs about the stars reported by the Circassian scholar Askerbi T. Shortanov (Shorten): “Every person had his own star—it was considered as a reflection of his/her soul. . . . It was prohibited to recount stars, for it was said that doing so would cause a rash, or warts to erupt all over the body, with number of warts equal to number of stars counted. The Circassians believed that if an ill person rubbed his eyes with his fingers and saw stars, he was destined to live, otherwise he would meet his doom within 24 hours” (Jaimoukha, 2001, p. 146). Great importance was also attached to shooting stars: “Coming home from the Circassian Cultural Institute's lecture on state building in Kabardino-Balkaria, I saw a shooting star. I got happy. I felt blessed. Naturally, I made a wish, that my soul has said so many times waiting to be sealed by an event that is rare, beautiful and awe-inspiring. I do not know when, or if, I will ever witness something like that moment again” (Wojokh, 2011, ¶1). </div>
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• “North Caucasian [Kabardian] mounted masked hunting society . . The horned mask is found on both sides of the Great Caucasian Mountains—one more example of the common Mountain (as opposed to Plains) culture” (183) + sitting on vanquished foe’s chest to cut off his head (Colarusso)</div>
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“The population of Daghestan was reckoned by the Russians, at the time of the Murid War at about two millions, of Circassia at a million, even after the plague of the late ‘twenties.” (Allen, 1971, p. 285n)</div>
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“They give to the child the name of the first stranger who enters the house after its birth; and let the name be Greek, or Latin, or of whatever foreign country it may, they always add to it the termination <i>uk</i>: thus Peter is transformed into Petruk, Paul into Pauluk, &c” (Klaproth, 1814, p. 333). “When they send a letter to any person, which they very rarely do, they have it written in general by Jews, in Hebrew characters; but it is much more usual to send verbal messages to one another” (p. 333). </div>
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“They have very long mustaches, and never stir without fire-arms by their side in a case of smooth leather, which is made and worked by their wives. They carry about them razors and a stone to sharpen them upon, and with these they shave one another’s heads, leaving only a long plaited lock of hair upon the crown. Some assert that this is done in order to allow a firm hold to be taken of the head if it should be cut off, that the face may not be soiled and stained by the dirty and bloody hands of the murderer. They also shave the hair from the breast when they go to battle, as they consider it a disgrace for hair to be seen upon that part when they are dead. They set fire with lighted matches to the houses of their enemies, which are all of straw.” (p. 334)</div>
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“Husband and wife lie in bed with their heads to each other’s feet; and their beds are of leather, filled with calmus flowers or rushes” (p. 334).</div>
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“Their country is for the greatest part swampy, covered with reeds and rushes, from the roots of which is obtained the calmus. These morasses are occasioned by the great rivers Tanais, which yet bears that name, the Rhombite, likewise called Copro, and several other large and small streams, that have several mouths, and, as has just been observed, form almost boundless swamps, through which many fords and passages have been made. By these secret ways they clandestinely proceed to attack the poor peasants, whom they carry off with their cattle and children from one country to another, and sell or barter them away” (p. 333).</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>6. Daghestani Traditions</b></span></div>
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Daghestan is the most linguistically complex region of the Caucasus, with 26 distinct languages, most of them represented by several dialects. These are all part of the Northeast Caucasian phylum, which combines the Daghestan languages and the distantly related North Caucasian sub-phylum (a.k.a. Nakh or Vainakh, comprising Chechen, Ingush, and Bats). The Daghestan languages are subdivided into the Avar-Andi-Dido (a.k.a. Avar-Andi-Tsezic) family (14 languages: Avar, Andi, Akhvakh, Karata, Botlikh, Godoberi, Chamalal, Bagvalal, Tindi, Dido, Hinukh, Bezhta, Hunzib, Khwarshi), the Lezghic family (9 languages: Archi, Tabasaran, Lezgian, Aghul, Udi, Kryts, Budukh, Rutul, Tsakhur), and the isolates Lak, Dargwa, and Khinalugh. The initial binary split between Nakh and Daghestanian occurred around 6000 B.C.; “at about 8000 years (an estimate of a calculated glottochronological age), East Caucasian is the oldest datable language stock” (Nichols, 2007). It is probable that many of these peoples have continuously inhabited Daghestan since that time. If we accept the Alarodian hypothesis (which unites Northeast Caucasian and Hurro-Urartian to form a larger phylum), that would place the initial breakup considerably earlier. If, as most scholars believe, there is an ancient genetic relationship between the Northeast Caucasian and Northwest Caucasian phyla, Johanna Nichols estimates that these languages first began to diverge about 15,000 years ago (REF).</div>
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The Northeast Caucasian phylum has deep connections to the ancient Near East. According to Nichols (2007), “Proto-East Caucasian appears to have diversified and taken root in the eastern Caucasus foothills and highlands as an early consequence of the initial spread of agriculture from Mesopotamia” (p. 781). “Since agriculture spread to the Caucasus from Mesopotamia very early, . . . it is at least possible that part of the Mesopotamian stock cluster and even the catalyst stock survive in the Caucasus enclave” (p. 787).The ancient Subarian language is associated with the late-prehistoric Halaf culture (<i>circa</i> 6100-5400 B.C.) and was associated with the development and spread of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent. This language is known from place-names and from various scattered references in Sumerian documents. With the arrival of the Sumerians (from India or from Oman, according to various theories), the Subarians withdrew into the mountains to the north and northeast. The Kura-Araxes culture (<i>circa</i> 3400-2300 B.C.), known for its precocious development of metallurgy, appears to have been associated with this same linguistic phylum. </div>
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The language of the Hurrians who irrupted into Mesopotamia from the Khabur valley (circa 2500 B.C.) is well attested and is demonstrably related to Subarian (indeed, Mesopotamian texts use the two designations interchangeably). The Hurrians established the famous Mitanni state, which dominated the Near East from <i>circa</i> 1450 to 1350 B.C. Like the Kartvelians, the Hurrians had extensive connections to Central Asia by way of the Alborz mountains (northern Iran, along the south coast of the Caspian Sea). The rulers of Mittani had Indo-Aryan names, suggesting that the Hurrians had an Indo-Aryan aristocracy. The Soviet archaeologist Sergei Pavlovich Tolstov (1907-1976) connected the ethnonym <i>Ḫu-ur-ri </i>(Hurrian) to <i>Khwarezm</i> (1948). Soviet archaeologists eventually unearthed the remains of an important Bronze Age civilization known as the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC, Oxus Civilization), which flourished in the region <i>circa</i> 2200-1700 B.C.<span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;"> </span>The Hurrians were skilled horsemen (and may have introduced horses into the Near East <i>circa</i> 2000 B.C.). A famous Hittite text on horsemanship was written by one Kikkuli, a Hurrian. These facts lend further support to Tolstov’s theory.</div>
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Numerous Hurrian states survived the downfall of Mitanni, including the biblical Horites and various principalities in Syria, Anatolia, and Cyprus. </div>
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Around 850 B.C., various remnants of the Hurrians coalesced to form the powerful state of Urartu, which successfully challenged Assyrian domination of northern Mesopotamia. Greatly weakened by the inroads of Cimmerians and Scythians from the north, the Urartian state finally collapsed early in the 6<sup>th</sup> century B.C., when it was replaced by the Armenian dynasty of the Orontids. </div>
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It has been persuasively demonstrated that the ancient Hurrian (Subarian) and Urartian languages were genetically related to the Northeast Caucasian phylum, where their closest connections appear to be to Lezghian and to the Vainakh sub-phylum (REF). This expanded phylum is sometimes designated “Alarodian” (from “<i>Alarodii</i>,” Herodotus’ designation for the Urartians).</div>
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During the 2<sup>nd</sup> or 1<sup>st</sup> century B.C., the kingdom of Albania arose in the eastern Caucasus. This powerful state extended from Hereti (eastern Georgia) to the Caspian Sea. The Caucasian Albanians were a semi-nomadic pastoral society and are frequently mentioned in Greco-Roman sources. According to Strabo, “they have twenty-six languages, because of the fact that they have no easy means of intercourse with one another” (<i>Geographica</i> XI.iv.6). The Caucasian Albanians were clearly ancestral to many of the peoples of Daghestan, as Strabo’s statement suggests. It is extremely remarkable that the number of languages mentioned by Strabo (twenty-six) corresponds precisely to the number of languages currently spoken in Daghestan!</div>
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+ Zoroastrianism (Baku)] </div>
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The Albanians were converted to Christianity during the 4<sup>th</sup> century, and their language was reduced to writing by Mesrob Mashtots (d. 440, who had done the same for Armenian). The Christian Albanians produced a significant literature, most of which is lost; however, in 2003 an Albanian lectionary (<i>circa</i> 400 A.D.) was discovered by Zaza Aleksidze on a palimpsest at St. Catherine’s Monastery on Mount Sinai. This is the only known Albanian document (ed. Gippert, Schulze, Alexsidze, & Mahé, 2009). The Caucasian Albanian language is clearly connected to the Lezghic family. It is most closely connected to the Udi language, which is still spoken in a few villages in Georgia and Azerbaijan.</div>
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Late in the 5<sup>th</sup> century, the reigning Arsacid dynasty died out and was replaced by the Mihrids, a branch of the Sassanians which remained in place even after the Arab conquest (644) and was finally extinguished in 821/22.</div>
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The Khazars were a Turkic (or Hunnic) people who became an extremely important factor in the history of Daghestan and the Caucasus. Their arrival on the steppe north of the Caspian Sea appears to be connected to the collapse of the 6<sup>th</sup>-century </div>
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Göktürk empire. By the middle of the 6<sup>th</sup> century, the Khazars had begun to launch attacks on the Caucasian Albanians to the south. They soon established control of Derbent, seizing the Caspian Gates. Ziebel, prince of the Khazars, assisted the Byzantine emperor Heraclius in his campaign against the Persians (627-28), overrunning Georgia and Albania in the process. Ziebel declared himself “lord of Albania” in 628.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>With the rise of Islam, the Khazar empire became an important buffer state, preventing the northward spread of Islam into Eastern Europe. The Khazars established their capital at Atil (Itil) on the lower Volga. They defeated the armies of the Umayyad Caliphate in a major war (650-669), halting Arab expansion beyond the Caucasus.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>By 670, the Khazars had also defeated and dispersed the Bulgar confederation, driving the Bulgars east to the Volga and west to the Danube (this dispersal may also have given rise to the Balkar people of the North Caucasus). During the late 7<sup>th</sup> century, the Khazars also overran the Crimea and the northeast littoral of the Black Sea. </div>
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The 8<sup>th</sup> century was a period of rapid expansion, which brought the Khazars into close association with the Byzantine Empire. In 704/05, the emperor Justinian II married Theodora, a sister of the Khazar <i>khagan</i> Busir. Shortly thereafter (711), the Khazars helped to elevate the usurper Philippicus to the Byzantine throne. In 720, Constantine V Copronymus married Tzitzak (baptized as Irene), the daughter of the Khazar <i>khagan</i> Bihar. Their son Leo IV (reigned 775-780) was known as “Leo the Khazar.” Around 715, a major war broke out between the Khazars and the Umayyad Caliphate. The Khazar armies, led by the female general Parsbit (a.k.a. Barsbek) gained a major victory over the Arabs at Arbadil (730) and beheaded the Arab general Jarrah al-Hakami. In 731, however, the Khazars were decisively defeated by the Arabs at Mosul (as the Khazar prince presided over the battle from a throne mounted with the severed head of Jarrah al-Hakami). This defeat resulted in the temporary Arab occupation of the Khazar capital of Atil. During the mid-8<sup>th</sup> century, the Khazars put down an uprising of the Goths in the Crimea. In 758, caliph al-Mansur ordered the governor of Armenia to make peace with the Khazars and take a Khazar bride. Her subsequent death under suspicious circumstances resulted in an invasion of Armenia and Azerbaijan by the Khazar general Ras Tarkhan. </div>
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By 800, the Khazar territories extended from the Dnieper river to the Aral Sea and even further to the east. The Khazars are best known for their famous conversion to Judaism. Some historians place this conversion as early as <i>circa</i> 740, while it is most commonly dated to around 800. Numismatic evidence, however, favors a later date: a cache of Khazar coins (widely used in international trade) unearthed on the Spillings farm on the island of Gotland (Sweden) are dated 837 and bear the inscription “Moses is the Prophet of God.” These coins may have been minted to commemorate the conversion fo the Khazars to Judaism. Jewish sources associate this conversion with the preaching of a certain Yitzhaq ha-Sangari, who supposedly emerged victorious from a debate against Christian and Muslim clergy which was held in the presence of the Khazar <i>khagan</i>. The Khazar kings of the 9<sup>th</sup> century adopted Jewish names: Obadiah, Benjamin, Aaron, and Zachariah. The Khazars established a portable Tabernacle based on Old Testament descriptions. Russian archaeologists have unearthed the remains of this at Khumar near Rostov-na-Donu (REF).</div>
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In 833, in exchange for the cession of the Chersonesus to the Byzantine Empire, the Khazar fortress of Sarcel (<span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Sa/rkel</span>) was built on the lower Don by Byzantine engineers under the direction of the architect Petronas Kamateros, who was subsequently installed as governor of Cherson (Constantine Porphyrogenitus, <i>De administrando imperio</i> 42). This was apparently a response to the threat posed by the Magyars to the “Khazarian Way,” the Don-Volga portage linking the Black and Caspian Seas.</div>
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The 9<sup>th</sup> century is known as the <i>Pax Khazarica</i>, a period of flourishing trade. From their headquarters on the lower Volga, the Khazars controlled a priome nexus of trade, the confluence of the Silk Road (linking China to Europe and the Mulim world) and an important north-south route linking the Near East to Northern Europe by way of the Volga river. The Khazar kings did not tax their subjects, levying instead a 10% duty on all trade-goods that passed through their realm. The Khazar heartland was the lower Volga and the coast of the Caspian as far south as Derbent. The king of the Khazars had his palace on an island in the Volga delta. His 25 wives were the daughters of client rulers. His domains extended far to the east and west, and also southward into the Caucasus, where his tributaries included the Lezgians, the Caucasian Huns, and the Caucasian Avars of Daghestan, as well as the Kartvelian state of Lazica (the former Colchis) on the Black Sea. The Caspian Sea is known as the “Sea of the Khazars” to this day (Arabic <i>Baḥr al-Khazar</i>; Persian <i>Darya-ye Khazar</i>; Turkish <i>Hazar Denisi</i>).</div>
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It is unclear whether the Khazar conversion to Judaism involved the entire nation or only their ruling class. In any case, the Khazar kings saw themselves as protectors and benefactors of international Jewry. Around 920, the Khazar king retaliated for the destruction of a synagogue in Persia by breaking off the minaret of the mosque in Atil and executing the <i>muezzin</i>; stating that he would have razed the mosque entirely but forebore lest this result in further persecution of the Persian Jews. Similarly, the Khazars responded to Byzantine persecution of Jews by attacking Byzantine commercial interests in the Crimea. There were many Jews in the Crimea: Tmutarakan had a majority Jewish populationa s early as the 670s. The Radhanites, a guild of Jewish merchants, played an important role in the flourishing Khazar trade network. Jewish sources reveal that at least two Spanish Jews established themselves among the Khazars during this period. The persecution of Jews in Persia led to a great influx of Jews from Persia into Khazaria. The “Mountain Jews” of Daghestan and Azerbaijan probably have some connection to the mediaeval Khazars as well. The Turkic-speaking Kumyk of Daghestan, as well as the closely-related Karachay of the North Caucasus, may also be remanants of the Khazars. </div>
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The Khazar state began to decline early in the 10<sup>th</sup> century, owing to the disruption of Khazar trade routes by the Varangians (Swedish Vikings) in the Volga basin and by Turkic tribes to the east. The Arab traveler Ibn Faḍl<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ā</span>n (<i>circa</i> 921) reports witnessing hostility between the Oghuz Turks and the Khazars. Some sources claim that Seljuq, the founder of the Seljuq Turks, began his career as a mercenary soldier in the service of the Khazars, rising to high rank before he fell out with the Khazar rulers and departed for Khwarazm (mid-10<sup>th</sup> century). </div>
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The last Khazar military success was the defeat of the Alans (early 10<sup>th</sup> century). After that their fortunes rapidly declined. Pressur from the Kievan Rus culminated in the capture of Sarcel by Sviataslov I in 965, followed by the Russian conquest of Atil, the Khazar capital, in 968 or 969. A visitor to Atil wrote soon after the sacking of the city: “The Rus attacked, and no grape or raisin remained, not a leaf on a branch” (no ref. given). </div>
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Khazar successor states managed to hold out in the Crimea for many decades. According to Jewish sources, a Khazar prince, David, was the ruler of Taman during 985/86. In 1016, a combined Russian and Byzantine army captured the Khazar state of Kerch and deposed its ruler, Georgius Tzul. Finally, in 1083, the Crimean principality of Tmutarakan fell to Oleg of Chernigov, who took the Byzantine title of “archon of Tmutarakan.” </div>
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This appears to have signaled the end of Khazar political power, but there are scattered references to the Jewish Khazars from succeeding centuries. During the 12<sup>th</sup> century, for example, there are references to Khazar students pursuing rabbinic studies in Toledo. Late in the 12<sup>th</sup> century, there are references to the presence of Jewish Khazars in Derbent. The conversion of the Khazars continued to resonate in Jewish thought. Pethahiah of Ratisbon (13<sup>th</sup> century) writes that “To the seven kings of Meshech an angel appeared in a dream, bidding them to give up the laws and statutes, and to embrace the laws of Moses, son of Amram. If not, he threatened to lay waste their country.”</div>
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+ Samandar (city on Volga) + Tamara Rice + “Mountains of Darkness” = Caucasus + Tarki sacked by Stenka Razin, 1668</div>
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great Arab invasion (Bugha the Turk, 853, 50,000 died in Tbilisi alone), bookmarked as “History of Georgia chapter II” = Silogava & Shengelia; + AVARS / HUNS + Kumyks / Nogais / Balkars / Karachays; Kalmyks; Azeris = non-Caucasian peoples] + Shamkhalate of Tarki article</div>
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“World of the Khazars” (2007)—Bookmarked. </div>
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According to al-Mas’udi (10<sup>th</sup> century), the king of Alania was married to the sister of the king of Sarir, a Christian state in neighboring Daghestan.</div>
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The subsequent history of Daghestan is dominated by the shifting fortunes of a number of small territorial states which arose at the expense of the region’s patchwork of free village and tribal communities. The senior and most prestigious of these states was the <i>Shamkhalate</i> of Kazi-Kumukh, founded in 733. The <i>Shamkhal</i> functioned as the titular ruler of much of Daghestan and was sometimes able to exercise control over large parts of it.</div>
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In 1594, the Shamkhal succeeded in destroying a Russian expedition of 7,000 men; a second Russian expedition was destroyed in 1599 (Allen, 1971).</div>
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[AVARIA, others; population explosion—raids into Christian Georgia (complex situation cf. Alaverdi articles, sack of Alaverdi), day-labor in Baku; dynastic connections to K’akheti, Georgian collaborators; fortifications of Sighnaghi (23 towers) and Telavi (loopholed church)]</div>
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In 1711, prince Alexander Bekovich-Cherkassky was in Daghestan, seeking support for the Tsar against the Shah of Persia, who was technically sovereign over the entire western littoral of the Caspian Sea as far north as Derbent.</div>
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[Russian invasion]</div>
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The defining event in the history of this period, however, was the invasion of Daghestan by Nāder Shāh (1741). The Shah, flush with his victory over the Mughals at Karnal and the sack of Delhi (1739), marched into Daghestan with 100<span style="font: 12.0px 'Times New Roman';">,000 men. After a series of blunders and hampered by the difficult terrain, the Persian army was trapped at Andalal (12-28 September 1741) by the armies of the Avar Khan, Murtazali. The battle went on for four</span> days and nights, as mountaineers poured in from all parts of Daghestan in support of the Khan. In the end, the bulk of Nāder Shāh’s army was destroyed, including most of his India veterans. [<span style="font: 12.0px 'Times New Roman';">40,000 perished in one location]</span></div>
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This victory greatly enhanced the prestige of the khan of Kazi-Kumukh, who remained the dominant political force in the region until the Russian conquest. Although linguistically divided, the tribes of Daghestan often succeeded in coordinating their forces, as they did in 1741. This was made possible through the use of the Avar language as a <i>lingua franca</i>, known throughout Daghestan as <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">болмацӀ (“army language”).</span></div>
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<span style="font: 12.0px 'Times New Roman';">(1747: the 23 khanates of Azerbaijan established, which dominated the region until the Russian conquest in the early 19<sup>th</sup> century)]</span> The Qarabagh khanate was one of the first and largest of them. The Sheki, Quba, Baku, Ganja, Talysh (Lankaran), Derbent, Shemakha, Nakhichevan and Erevan khanates. + Qutqashen, Shirvan, Sarab khanates</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>During the 18<sup>th</sup> century, many of the free peasant communities of Daghestan were brought into feudal submission to these khanates. For example, “Lezgians became part of the Quba khanate in the southeast, of the Derbent khanate in the northeast, and of the Kazikumux khanate in the northwest. . . . The southeastern areas (along the valley of the middle Samur river) did not belong to a feudal territory, but consisted of associations of independent peasant communities . . . such as Axty-para, Alty-para, Doquz-para, and Rutul” (Haspelmath, 1993, pp. 17-19).</div>
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+ death of Aga Muhammad at Shusha in 1797.</div>
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• Derbent oldest city in USSR (potsherds from 3000 BC), Sassanian settlement, original “Caspian Gates” a double wall 25m high, 7m long dating to 5<sup>th</sup> century AD. [Khosroes] The third longest in the world after the Great Wall of China & Hadrian’s Wall in Britain. (139)</div>
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• Sassanians ruled Daghestan until 7<sup>th</sup> century Arab invasion</div>
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• Shaykh MANSUR: Suvarov’s massacre of the Nogai Tartars (1782), then annexation of Crimea (1783) and mass exodus; then the Jihad. “the first jihad led by the Naqshbandi Sufi Sheikh Mansur against the Russian advance in the North Caucasus” (210)</div>
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“The population of Daghestan was reckoned by the Russians, at the time of the Murid War at about two millions, of Circassia at a million, even after the plague of the late ‘twenties.” (Allen, 1971, p. 285n)</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The cultures of Daghestan are the most archaic in the Caucasus. They preserve an array of bizarre beliefs and practices which are found nowhere else on earth, providing a fascinating glimpse into the world of our Neolithic ancestors. It is very likely that many of the cultural features of Daghestan were characteristic of the Subarian (Tell Halaf) cultural complex which dominated pre-Sumerian Mesopotamia, still preserved in the inaccessible mountain valleys into which it retreated 5000 years ago.</div>
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MODUS VIVENDI</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The peoples of Daghestan were involved in the early development of agriculture in the Near East. Domesticated grains of rye and wheat have been found in Daghestan dating to the sixth millennium B.C. (Chenciner, 1997). Owing to the arid climate and lack of arable land, however, there was a perennial danger of drought and starvation. As a result, nettles are commonly eaten. Since the land was unable to support a large population, both abortion and geronticide have a long tradition in Daghestan. “Three hundred years ago in the villages of Hushtada, Kvanada and Tlondada, there was a Bagulaal Avar tradition to kill off old men over sixty, because there was insufficient food. They put them in a basket and threw them off a special rock on the mountain” (Chenciner, 1997, pp. 37-38). “Traditional methods of birth control include jumping off three-metre-high rocks or walls, washing internally with soap and water, putting a propane cooking gas cylinder on your belly, sitting in scalding water to burn the baby out, or using poisonous herbs as an emetic to expel the foetus” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 60). [USED IN RELIGION SECTION]</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Female circumcision was widespread in Daghestan until the 1970s. While the standard of female beauty was to have dark hair and blue eyes, Daghestani women traditionally sought to make themselves as unattractive as possible. Since prehistoric times, the women of Daghestan have traditionally been tattooed with various ancient cosmological symbols, which serve as amulets and identify them with specific villages Chenciner, 2006). In contrast to the Georgians, the peoples of Daghestan practiced endogamy. This is especially true among the Lezgians, who are classless and formerly practiced brother-sister marriage (Islam still permits first-cousin marriage, which is widespread). Since people usually marry someone from the same village, “the same dowry gifts move round and round, from generation to generation. Most houses have a few 16<sup>th</sup> and 17<sup>th</sup> century blue-and-white Persian bowls and 18<sup>th</sup> century ‘Koubachi’ wares” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 152). Marriage is traditionally by abduction, as practiced throughout the North Caucasus. Interactions between the sexes were dictated by elaborate rules. The resulting lack of social communication “even gave rise to secret languages for women in Koubachi village and others” (p. 48). The North Caucasian custom of fostering was also practiced in Daghestan: “In the last century, when a son was born to the ruler of the Karakaitags, he was sent from village to village to be suckled by all the women who could, in order to make him foster-brother of his entire generation” (p. 81).<span style="font: 10.0px Cambria;"><b> 122-3, 221, 240-42 Godekan</b></span></div>
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WARFARE</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Daghestan was dominated by the pre-Islamic institution of Men’s Houses and Men’s Unions. These were male secret societies whose functions included the initiation of adolescent males and the defense of the community. Boys were initiated through games that were “warlike, cruel or tormenting, reflecting their tough life. For example, a boy was sent out late at night to leave his cap somewhere in the cemetery and another, selected by lot, was sent to find it, not knowing that others were hidden there to frighten him” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 32). During <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Nāder Shāh</span>’s first invasion of Daghestan (1735), the Chabkouni (members of the men’s union) of Koubachi fought to the last man to defend the town, even though their relatives begged them to surrender and finally set fire to the towers from which they were making their resistance (Chenciner, 1997). </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>These men’s unions were closely related to the Circassian institution of the <i>djigits</i>, masked societies who met with their princes for six weeks after the harvest, during which they used a secret language (<i>Chakobza</i>) to plan and carry out raids into settled areas. The word “<i>djigit</i>” simply means a Circassian, but was used throughout the North Caucasus to denote the participants in these male secret societies.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Like the Circassian <i>djigits</i>, the <i>djigits</i> of Daghestan concealed their identities behind masks. “Warriors wore masks to protect their faces and scare the enemy” (p. 184). These masks were formerly made of iron. The oldest extant iron mask from Daghestan dates to the 10<sup>th</sup> century. The Daghestani <i>djigit</i> wore a black felt <i>bourka</i>, a very ancient sort of garment which served as a coat, a uniform, and (in case he was killed) a shroud. The <i>bourka</i> could also be placed on the gorund to delineate the bounds of a dueling-ground at close quarters, and, conversely, was sometimes interposed between two men to stop a duel. “When the Daghestan highlander went looking for loot or to war, he wore his djigit dress. The distant glimpse of a black cape on horseback must have induced the same terror as the fluttering pennant of a Japanese samurai. . . . The more important the man, the richer his accoutrements. Under his weapons, his black wool-cloth <i>cherkess </i>coat with a woollen cloth bashlik hood, worn in cold weather, were standard dress” (p. 175).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>These customs are extremely ancient. Chenciner publishes a plate (p. 167) with the caption, “Detail of masked horsemen on an 18<sup>th</sup>-century Kaitag embroidery.” Movs<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ē</span>s Xorenac’i (Moses of Khoren), an Armenian writer of the 7<sup>th</sup> century, describes how “the giant leader of a savage group of Caucasian mountain-men, invading Armenia from the north-east [i.e. Daghestan], was covered in spear-proof felt armour” (p. 180). The Daghestani versions of the Nart sagas preserve a wealth of ancient cultural information, including a description of the “grisly furry coat” of Soslan Kartsa, “made of the beard-skins of the men whom he had slain” (p. 180). </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The tribes of Daghestan were ferocious warriors and were widely feared, especially after their destruction of the army of <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Nāder Shāh</span>. “While their secondary occupations were lumbering, gardening and herding . . . [they] were first of all fierce rievers, incendiaries and thieves, who descended each year northwards across the Terek, and southwards and eastwards into the Mtkvari valley” (Allen, 1971, p. 35). Throughout the 18<sup>th</sup> century, the Lezgians, especially, made frequent incursions into K’akheti and beyond. Traveling in small, mobile bands, they raided the Georgian countryside at will, seizing slaves, hostages, and plunder and penetrating even to the outskirts of Mtskheta on occasion. At the same time, the Georgian kings often hired them as mercenary soldiers, and they served the Georgian feudal aznauris as well in their chronic internecine wars. The khan of Avaria enjoyed tremendous prestige after his rout of the Shah’s armies in 1741, and Avaria was the most powerful state in the Caucasus during the second half of the 18<sup>th</sup> century, with a standing army of 30,000 men. </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>During the 4<sup>th</sup> century A.D., king Khosrov of Armenia (son and successor of Tiridates III, the first Christian Armenian king) faced an invasion of peoples from the North Caucasus. Moses of Khoren describes one of their commanders as “a fearsome armed giant completely enveloped in felt” (<i>Patmut’iwn Hayoc’ </i>III.9, trans. Thomson).</div>
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SYMPATHETIC MAGIC<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></div>
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The peoples of Daghestan are notable for preserving a wide array of ancient beliefs and practices which may be described as Sympathetic Magic. Most of these ideas were involved with the Contagious Principle: “That is, things that were once in contact with someone can be used in rites and spells to make things happen to that person. By performing the correct rites and spells on such objects as hair clippings, bodily excretions, nail parings, infant umbilical cords, or jewelry and clothing, harm can be done to one’s enemies” (Bailey & Peoples, 2002, p. 213). For example, “three charms from the village of Archi were typical of sympathetic magic, connected with animals: if you kill a frog, your cow will die; if you eat cats, you get the ‘trembling illness’; and if a child is agitated or afraid, feed it snake meat” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 87). </div>
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Numerous magical practices were associated with agriculture, including the use of terrifying scarecrows to attract rain or sunshine, and various feasts whose purpose was to ensure the fertility of the land. These feasts typically featured the preparation of soup in huge communal pots. These pots were stirred with huge, gaily-decorated spoons. “The longest culinary spoon in the world may well be the 5’5” one in Akhti museum, made in Kuyada, Gunibskii rayon” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 73). </div>
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Most of the ethnic groups of Daghestan practiced First Furrow rituals of various sorts. Among the Tabassarans, for instance, “all the men met at a holy grave and presented each othe with <i>sadaka</i>, small gifts. In the evening, the ploughman performed a cleansing ritual, before making love with his wife. In the morning, he kept apart from his family and neighbours and, dressed in clean clothes, he went ploughing barefoot and for three days only he was entitled to sow seeds” (Chenciner, 1997, pp. 109-10). On the Lezgin Day of the Gardener, a “queen” was selected to preside over the ceremonies, wearing “a gross Diana-of-the-Ephesians-style many-appled necklace” (p. 110). The principal use of masks was in association with fertility rites; for this reason, even scarecrows were sometimes dressed in masks.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></div>
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Magical practices were associated with human fertility as well. “By the hearth of many houses, there is a bronze oil lamp, in the form of an erect phallus” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 57). The Turkic-speaking Kumyk people of Daghestan (possibly a remnant of the mediaeval Khazars), had a superstition that “if at a marriage party somebody shuts a flick-knife or sheathes a kinjal or closes scissors or makes knots, then the bride will be infertile” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 56). Masked dances were performed at weddings to ensure fertility. “Everywhere a pair of horns is displayed at the symbolic entrance to the home” (p. 191), and an “elixir of life made from ground deer horn” was sold for high prices as an aphrodisiac (p. 191). “Snake-shaped bracelets were worn by sick or barren women and the reptile also decorated talismanic ceramic jugs and dishes” (p. 86).</div>
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Other charms included salt, dog’s excrement, grain, and splinters of wood. “Animal skulls were kept in the corner of a room or outdoors, and cattle horns were nailed to a fence or verandah. Metal charms included knives, sickles, scissors, pins, needles and horseshoes. A piece of metal was placed under the head of a new-born babe, and when a child started to walk, a small piece of metal was sewn to his clothing, to prevent a fall” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 86). Uzelik (paganum harmala) was dried and hung in bunches to protect houses from evil spirits; it was also used to fumigate sickrooms. “If</div>
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the master of a household fell ill after giving dinner to a stranger, it was necessary to get a scrap of his clothing to burn with <i>uzelik</i>, to purify the house by cremating the miserable spirit which he had left behind. If this was impossible, a twig broom was used to sweep all the places where the guest’s feet had trodden, and the dust collected, mixed with salt and incinerated with <i>uzelik</i>.” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 86). Talismans were hung in vacant or newly-built houses to prevent evil spirits from taking up residence there.</div>
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“In older houses the roof logs and the roof were held up by a great wooden column with a capital, up to four metres long. Sixteenth and seventeenth century capitals were often shaped like great coiled horns” (p. 148). Chenciner notes that “the curse ‘May your column fall!’ is still a grave offense (p. 150).<span style="font: 10.0px Cambria;"><b> </b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Special rituals were associated with bread. Bread of many different kinds and shapes for various occasions, including weddings, funerals, and religious observances. When a child “stepped over the bread . . . to get at some other food . . . his father made him kiss the bread as an apology, and promise never to do it again. The first bread from new flour had always to be tasted by the head of house, and then by the youngest boy to ensure he grew up strong” (p. 118).</div>
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RELIGION</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>During the era of Persian ascendancy, Zoroastrianism spread northward along the west coast of the Caspian Sea. The famous “Maiden Tower” [<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Qız Qalası</span>] at Baku is thought to have been a Zoroastrian sacred site, and an ancient Zoroastrian temple, the Atə<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">şgah</span> (“fire temple”) at Surakhani on the outskirts of Baku, continues to function on the outskirts of the city. Zoroastrianism spread into the interior of Daghestan as well, where it became associated with Sun worship (Chenciner, 1997). Rituals associated with the Zoroastrian New Year are still widespread throughout the Caucasus. In Daghestan, people celebrate the “Burning of Winter” by bringing anything old out of their houses and burning it in bonfires which are set in yards, streets, or on the outskirts of the village. It is customary for young men to leap over these bonfires as a rite of purification. In some parts of Daghestan, whole mountainsides used to be set on fire (Chenciner, 1997). </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Islam was first brought to Daghestan during the 8<sup>th</sup> century. The Laks claim pride of place as the first converts to Islam. Eventually, Islam in Daghestan and Chechnya came to be dominated by two Sufi sects, the Naqshbandis and the Qadiris. [differences: N. “prestigious, ” “The Naqshbandis practiced the silent zikr usually on their own, which was obviously safer than the loud group <i>zikr </i>during times of persecution” Q. “They practice the loud <i>zikr </i>chant . . . The loud <i>zikr</i> was normally chanted in a group, but could also be said individually. It took about an hour, but some Sufis continued all their waking time.” “The Qadiri leadership was always kept in one family. In contrast, the leaders of the Naqshbandis were selected on merit and so the order was more intellectual” (212). Both sects were associated with violent resistance to Russian rule [imamate]</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>As might be expected, the Daghestani practice of Islam is highly syncretistic. “Strict Muslim hosts drink water but still make toasts” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 127). “The Daghestani interpretation of Islam prohibits eating pork, wild boar, the foal of an ass, cat, dog, wolf and fox. Eating horseflesh was rare, but only permitted if a horse was useless for riding, except for a complete taboo in western Daghestan among the Akhvakh, Karata, Dido, Bezhta” (p. 129). A 14<sup>th</sup>-century mosque at Tsofkra Pervoy is described as being “decorated with powerful archaic pagan horn-shapes” (p. 145). “At New Year, youngsters would make the rounds with songs of praise to Allah and Spring, carrying a small tree (or large branch) on which to hang presents decorated with ribbons. The tree was sometimes topped . . . with a carved wooden bird whose head could be nodded by a string in sarcastic disapproval of mean gifts” (p. 179). <span style="font: 10.0px Cambria;"><b>125-6 Izrael; 237 Shayt’an</b></span></div>
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There are numerous Islamized pagan shrines throughout the region. “In the villages of Daghestan women do not go to the mosque, even though there are women’s areas set aside there. In contrast it is chiefly women who visit the holy shrines, which are found throughout Daghestan, and were so hated by the Soviet authorities. Today, every shrine is covered with hundreds of new ribbons, fluttering in the wind (Chenciner, 1997, p. 43). “In Derbent there is a sacred place – a tenth-century walled shrine, with the Tombs of the Forty Arab Martyrs, killed fighting the Khazars, where people go to cure barrenness. Inside, a sacred tree is covered with tied-on cloth offerings . . . There is one particular tomb, with an arched niche in the headstone, where the woman supplicant bends forward, to touch her forehead, in order to ensure children” (p. 58). “The Avar national shrine in Zakatal . . . was by tradition a plain wooden hut. . . . The walls would have been covered with the horns of sacrificed <i>turs</i> and buck-deer” (p. 195). The “magic earth” from the tombs of Sufi saints is thought to have supernatural power. The associated shrine may preserve the personal effects of the deceased, such as his coat or walking stick. These objects, as well as the shrine itself and sacred trees in the vicinity, are typically decorated with colorful ribbons and cloth streamers (Chenciner, 1997).<span style="font: 10.0px Cambria;"><b> 207 cadi, interpreter of writing; stories of Malla Nasradin (trickster, wise fool)</b></span> “The imam of a (nameless) village had died, so the Council of Elders gathered to choose his successor. A very old man, known to be a joker, interrupted the speeches, suggesting that the new imam should be a man who had not had sexual intercourse with a donkey, so would all those in that condition step forward. But no one moved” (192). [clergy as scoundrels]</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Daghestani beliefs about ritual purity combine Islamic and pagan ideas: “Food was also banned if it had come by ill-gotten gains from stealing or cheating, or been prepared by women who had not completed ablutions after sex or were menstruating. It was unclean to eat walking in the streets, or in a crowded place, or if one was on horseback, lying down, standing up, next to a sickbed, in a hayloft or stable” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 129). “News of disgrace spread beyond the village and groups of people with bad reputations had to settle together, like Kadar, the Dargin Village of Thieves” (p. 129). “It was thought humiliating to eat at the same table with an intruder who violated the rules of honour and shame. So if a stranger passing through, took advantage of shelter and food as a guest, but got drunk, the host would refuse to sit with him” (p. 129).<span style="font: 10.0px Cambria;"><b> 125 stolen objects found in other world; 170 beehive, theft of bees [references to theft passim]</b></span></div>
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<b>THEFT of livestock, housebreaking, even of bees from a hive; 118 blacksmith (migratory, 128), migrated from village to village (seasonal); 244-5 gravediggers</b></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Religious syncretism is especially noticeable in Daghestani burial practices. Men were traditionally buried in white shrouds, women in green shrouds. The bodies were washed on a tin tray which was kept in the mosque, and water was sprinkled into the eyes of the corpse. There was a taboo against women attending funerals. After the funeral, an old man was stationed in a hut inside the cemetery to read the Qur’an over the grave for seven days. Religious ceremonies were signaled by the lighting of fires: one fire for a funeral, two for a wedding. Logs were traditionally left on the doorstep of a bereaved family (wood being a precious commodity in much of Daghestan) (Chenciner, 1997; Berg, 2001). “The 12<sup>th</sup>-century traveler Abu Hamed of Grenada wrote about the extraordinary burial rites of Sirihkeran, the village of the armouers, the Arab name for Koubachi. When a man died, his corpse was presented to some people who lived in wattle and earth huts – not the villagers in their fine stone houses – who chopped up the body, separating the bones from the flesh. The flesh was put out for the eagles, buzzards or other birds to eat (and take to heaven) . . . Rich people had bags of gold embroidery, ‘Greek’ silk, or more simply bleached linen, which were then labeled and hung up in the houses” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 97). Chenciner also describes a “talismanic cover” dating to the 18<sup>th</sup> century, “which was probably used to conceal the face of a dead person, showing a symbolic route to the next world in the mirror image of the microcosmic design with ‘axis mundi’ separating the primal mound from an umbrella-like heaven, also linked with a snake-like lightning bolt” (p. 159). Similar motifs are seen on old tombstones, which feature animist and Islamic iconography side by side, along with Arabic inscriptions.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>As in other parts of the North Caucasus, funerals were celebrated with horse races. In Daghestan, male mourners shaved their heads except for one lock. The horsemen carried forked sticks festooned with apples and nuts, and the winner’s prize was the clothing of the deceased. There is also evidence of horses being sacrificed and buried along with their owners. Mourners were required to make barefoot visits to the grave of the deceased, even during the winter (Chenciner, 1997). In the North Caucasus, a rag-doll served as “a burial offering for a dead girl child,” and these were kept as symbolic playthings (p. 97).<span style="font: 10.0px Cambria;"><b> 95 giving alms would absolve the sins of one’s late relatives</b></span></div>
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<b>99 custom of bringing alms to the grave</b></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Many Daghestani beliefs and practices are clearly of pre-Islamic pagan origin: the Kumyk (possibly descendants of the mediaeval Khazars) maintained the cult of Suv Anasy, “the sterile ‘Mother of Water’ who inhabited the earth. She was huge in size, like a Nart, with enormous strength and lived beside a river, guarding the water. She could deafen her victim with one blow, and even drown him, if he disrespectfully approached the river at night” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 106).</div>
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Many pagan beliefs pertain to animals. “Legends and folktales of the origin of ethnic groups speak of progeny from the union of animals and women. The earliest known example of a pregnant woman with a goat as father is portrayed in a Mesolithic rock drawing at Cinna-Khitta” (p. 191). Stories of human cohabitation with bears are especially frequent, including stories of female bear-sirens who consorted with hunters. A masked man dressed as a “dancing bear” traditionally performs at Dargin weddings, apparently as a fertility ritual (p. 194, with illustration). “Daghestan and North Caucasian dog fights are a ritual activity, where giant dogs fight according to complex rules” (p. 200). Cockfighting is also widely practiced.<span style="font: 10.0px Cambria;"><b> 228 set dogs on someone</b></span></div>
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MEDICINE<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></div>
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The peoples of Daghestan employed a wide array of herbal remedies: “Daghestan is reputed to have almost as many medicinal herbs as Tibet – several hundred at least, depending on the method of classification” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 265). “Dried grass snake, crushed with honey, was eaten to get rid of skin rashes and yolk of egg with honey were spread on a wound so that it healed without a scar . . . Rich bear meat was eaten when you felt unwell and had no appetite, and cooked badger leg, which was very fatty, or St. John’s wort tea restored energy after an illness” (p. 123). The mentally ill were treated with superstitious reverence, and their graves were visited in times of illness, “when their supernatural connections enabled them to chase away the spirits of sickness” (p. 87). At the same time, Berg (2001) makes reference to the practice of restraining a madman in a bag, who is “calmed” by beating him with sticks (pp. 157-58). “For magical healing, the Lezgin resorted to a witch doctor, who performed various rites. He collected earth from holy places of shrines, such [as] the Pyre of Suleiman on Mount Shalbuzdag, which was mixed with water and drunk as medicine. He also used human-like Mary’s hair, a fibrous plant which hangs from branches. If a prayer was said while a strand was tied around the wrist or ankle, magic powers of healing were activated” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 87). In the event of an epidemic, a bull was sacrificed and its meat consumed by the entire village, after which its bones were buried. “Before filling the pit with earth, they threw in oak branches and herbs. . . . Finally, they set light to a tuft of the bull’s eyebrows on the mound” (p. 195).<span style="font: 10.0px Cambria;"><b> 185-86 fraudulent mouse-powder (ground-up pottery fragments, cf. famine)</b></span></div>
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SORCERY</div>
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Like other peoples of the Caucasus and the Near East, the peoples of Daghestan believed used various amulets for protection against the Evil Eye. “Even today, beads to keep the evil eye at bay are sewn on children’s clothing from birth, or worn around their wrists or necks. Small glass beads, resembling eyes, were favoured by the Dargins, as were bones or teeth of boar, fox, wolf or goat, sea shells, bears’ claws, and egg shells. The Lezgins protected themselves with amulets in red cloth bags or leather pouches, adapted in Muslim times to hold a few lines from the Koran, sewn into their clothing. Richer folk would keep an amulet box, containing barley, apricot kernels, quince or cornelian cherry, as fruit-bearing plants were thought to have healing properties (Chenciner, 1997, p. 86). The Evil Eye could be “accidentally attracted by praising someone, celebrating recovery from illness, or even picking up a child in admiration” (p. 87). Sorcerers would sometimes seek to pass on an illness by embracing a child after visiting a dying person. “The Lezgins in particular had discovered a most effective way to kill: by burying some of the victim’s hairs, knotted with a woollen string and a fatty sheep’s tail in a sunny place. As the fat melted, so the victim would sicken and die in torment” (p. 87). </div>
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It was believed that a sorcerer could harm a person, as in the case just noted, by obtaining their hair or other bodily <i>detritus</i>, and many superstitions were concerned with preventing this. When circumcision was performed, “the foreskin was placed in a clean place in the eaves by the circumciser” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 79). “Before cutting a baby’s nails, its fingers were pressed on flour to stop it becoming a thief. When a baby’s hair was cut, it had to be put in a hole in the wall of the house – what was locally described as a clean place, protected from malevolent beings or forces – as did the baby’s nails. The baby’s bath water had to be thrown out in the morning, so that no part of the infant fell into malevolent hands” (Chenciner, 1997, pp. 78-79). Men “never addressed their wives by name, especially in front of strangers. . . . if a wife’s name was mentioned, it would attract the attention of the evil eye and harm would befall her. . . . In Daghestan a wife, in turn, addressed her husband as “he,” and spoke to him only when it was convenient to him, in a soft calm voice” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 40). Coal and soot were kept by Lezgins to ward off evil forces and youngsters were smeared with soot and dressed in torn clothes to make them unattractive to spirits” (p. 86). <span style="font: 10.0px Cambria;"><b>228 coal of burned house; 178 “Take the corpse tonight and throw it at the place where three roads divide”</b></span></div>
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Daghestani sorcerers used terrifying “devil-masks” to identify themselves with resurrected ancestors.</div>
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DIVINATION</div>
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The peoples of Daghestan practiced several interesting forms of divination, including dream-divination and palm-reading (both of which were mainly practiced by women) (Chenciner, 1997, p. 43). Dreams were believed to reveal secrets: “One night he had a dream in which a big tree came out of his head and instead of the leaves the stolen pieces of material were hanging” (Berg, 2001, p. 150). If a child fell ill, ceromancy was used to divine the proper remedy: “A sick child’s ear wax was dropped into a dish of cold water and the shape divined by the witch-docor, usually as a snake or a frog, which was then caught and its skin rubbed over the child. Presumably, that was the more pleasant function of a bronze frog from Koubachi, now on show in a museum in Makhachkala” (p. 87). The old bronze frog-idols found in Daghestan presumably had some relation either to rain-making or to the practice of folk medicine.</div>
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ASTROLOGY ETC.:</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Like other peoples of the Caucasus, the peoples of Daghestan venerated the Sun. Ancient tombstones and carpets are decorated with sun-bursts, sun-signs, sun-birds, octagons, and cosmic columns. Sun-signs were also branded onto the skulls of sacrificed animals, which were carefully preserved. The <i>valuch-tush</i> was a one-eyed demon whose “cyclopean eye, big, round and brilliant, stood for the sun . . . The Avars called this giant ‘plate-eyed,’ and to the Laks, he was ‘bread-eyed’ and ‘cup-eyed’” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 23). The legendary Narts “bowed in the direction of the setting sun and the sun answered to their bidding by pausing to allow them to complete their day’s work” (p. 23). The traditional religion of Daghestan was characterized by invocations and supplications to the Sun. On the occasion of the winter solstice, “a mid-winter procession wound around the cemetery, following a raised totem of a white cloth torso on a pole” (p. 106). </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The peoples of Daghestan developed a calendrical system of great complexity, though it is no longer understood today: “Engraved on the outside wall [of the mosque at Ghazi-Ghumuq] were mysterious indents and notches believed to be part of an elaborate solar calendar system, used in the mountains in the pre-Islamic era” (Karny, 2000, p. 162). The Aghul people of southern Daghestan bake special bread for funerals in the shape of a sunburst, with 13 rays (Chenciner, 1997, p. 90). The 13 rays are probably a lunar motif, representing the 13 lunar months that correspond (more or less) to one solar year. Another instance of soli-lunar synchronism is seen in Daghestani agricultural practices: “Vineyard districts had special rules. By law and common conviction, it was forbidden to pck or even eat grapes till the 15<sup>th</sup> day of autumn [i.e., one-half lunation counted from the autumnal equinox]. In some districts, if someone violated this rule he was driven through the village on a mule, his face smeared with soot” (p. 103). </div>
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Both Sun and Moon figured prominently in Daghestani folk medicine. “Spring waters, herbs and spells form an integral part of this medicine. . . . The curing spring beside the waterfall at Inkhokvari, near Aguali village is one such mysterious example. When the moon waxes, there is more gas in the pungent waters, when moon wanes, less, and the flavour changes . . . Earlier this century, on the night of the equinox, even ordinary spring water was considered to have medicinal properties by the Kumyks, who either bathed in the river or brought home ewers filled with its water to pour over themselves and their elderly relatives. They used special brass owls, with central raised bosses and magical inscriptions, for drinking remedial waters” (p. 85). The two luminaries were also featured in incantations against illness, such as “May the sun and mon show the way, may the wind drive the illness away” (p. 195). Apparently the sky of clouds and weather was equated to the starry heavens; both were understood to be relatively near at hand: “I saw how a crow took your boy yesterday and led him to the stars” (Berg, 2001, p. 130).</div>
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Meteorites were regarded as objects of great supernatural power, and were installed in mosques and tombstones (Chenciner, 1997).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The arid climate of Daghestan was characterized by frequent periods of drought. The peoples of Daghestan practiced a wide variety of rain-making rituals. Many of the ceremonies used to invoke rain, such as throwing stones into the river, appear to be symbolic of human sacrifice, recalling a time in the distant past when a human victim was drowned in the river to summon rain (Chenciner, 1997, p. 104). Many rain-making rituals involved the parading of a votive object, such as a spade, puppet, or doll, often decorated with images of snakes and frogs, or a living child dressed as a scarecrow or “rain donkey.” In all cases, water was poured over the object or human participant as it passed through the village. These practices are clearly parallel to the rain-making dolls used by the Abkhaz, far to the west.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>There were many other techniques, some of them quite bizarre: “In Tabassaran, the villagers gathered beside springs, holy graves and on mountain peaks, to sacrifice a horned animal, which they had jointly acquired. In the village of Dabek, they gatered at their sacred tree to kill a sheep or ox. . . . After feasting on its meat, they broke a branch off the holy tree and with a stone tied to its crown, let it down into the spring, simulating the rain, which they believed would fall for as long as it remained under water. In Mezhgiul, they destroyed a raven’s nest, so that the bird which was a scapegoat for the drought, would go away. In other village, they opened up a saint’s grave and put his remains in water for a few hours or moved the tombstone. Imitating rain, they would clean a sprig of silt or tie rags – usually red for riches – on the branches of a sacred tree or beat the water or ground with branches, chanting “<i>Ubg markh! Ubg markh!” </i>(“Pour, rain! Pour, rain!”)” (pp. 106-7). The Islamic clergy were also involved in these rituals. In times of drought, “the mullah presented his village with a sheep’s shoulder bone with Arabic instriptions to encourage rain” (p. 105).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Occasionally, the problem was too much rain. In such cases, frogs and snakes were caught and buried alive to stop the rain—yet another instance of Sympathetic Magic (p. 195). The mountaineers of Daghestan are notoriously afraid of water and have an aversion to eating fish, in contrast to the Georgians, for whom fish had a totemic significance.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Hail was another serious threat to the survival of the community. “To put a stop to hail, which damaged crops, metal implements such as axes, knives or daggers were thrown into the yard” (p. 107). “In Bezhta, tiny broken ceramics had been carefully placed all over the low mound of a child’s grave by other children, supposedly to protect it from hail (p. 97). These rituals recall some of the hail-prevention techniques found in the <i>Geoponica</i> and the <i>Nabataean Agriculture</i>, and are clearly of great antiquity.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Lightning was highly revered, and the splinters from a tree struck by lightning were carefully preserved and used as amulets and charms against sickness (p. 86).</div>
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“Not so long ago, a Russian lecturer was explaining to a group of Daghestan mountain villagers all about the Soviet conquest of space. He warmed to his subject as his audience politely listened, gazing at the stars in the mild summer night. After three hours, the address had finished, everyone clapped, and the lecturer asked if there were any questions. The respectful silence was eventually broken by a village elder. He thanked the speaker and confirmed that indeed they now knew everything about the cosmos, but as they were in the presence of a scientist, perhaps he could ask him about a problem which had for long puzzled him. “How did they get the soft jam into the centre of the hard sugar sweets?” (Chenciner, 1997, p. 12). This story more or less sums up what I have learned about the Daghestani understanding of astrology. While the peoples of Daghestan took celestial phenomena very seriously and interpreted them as omens (in common with most other natural events), they do not appear to have had an astrological tradition worthy of the name. Their thinking about such matters still falls within the category of “Primal Astrology,” as described above. Presumably the Islamic clergy had some access to astrological treatises, but I have found no specific references to the practice of astrology in Daghestan.</div>
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<b>170 fate, calamity; </b></div>
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<b>259 knowledge of time of death</b></div>
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162 picture of NOTCHES—“The mosque building provides some evidence of the Laks’ antiquity. Engraved on the outside wall, by the entrance, are mysterious indentations and notches that are believed to be part of an elaborate solar calendar system, used in the mountains in the pre-Islamic era. The mosque’s site could have once been occupied by a pagan temple, probably for fire worshippers. Gods and governors may have changed in the Caucasus, but the highlanders have never lost the urge to worship. To this day, they still celebrate the dawn of spring as their ancestors did a thousand years ago. In what they call <i>Intnil-khu</i> (“spring night”), the Laks spend a whole night on the peaks of their mountains, setting fires and eating <i>bartu</i>, a special bread shaped in a zodiac form. Similarly, they spend the first night of the summer on the peak of a sacred mountain called Vets’ilu, just outside of Ghazi-Ghumuq. When Aliyev was a child, people used to gather on the mountain and await the rise of the first summer sun, at which time they performed an ancient dance called <i>sappa</i>. (p. 163)</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>7. Ossetian Tradition</b></span></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Ossetians (Alans) are the only surviving remnant of the Sarmatians, a confederation of Scythians (East Iranians) whose territories formerly extended from the steppes to the northeast of the Caspian Sea through the North Caucasus, and the steppe lands north of the Black Sea as far as the mouth of the Danube. They were an extremely warlike people whose religious cult involved the worship of a sword thrust in the ground. According to Herodotus (REF), “their women, so long as they are virgins, ride, shoot, throw the javelin while mounted, and fight with their enemies. They do not lay aside their virginity until they have killed three of their enemies, and they do not marry before they have performed the traditional sacred rites.” Archaeological investigation of Sarmatian burial-mounds in the Ukraine reveals that approximately 20% of the burials were of females dressed for battle. This unusual phenomenon led some classical authors (e.g. Pseudo-Scylax, <i>Periplus Maris Interni</i> 70) to the mistaken belief that the Sarmatians were ruled by women. The Ossetian language of the Caucasus and the Yaghnobi language of Uzbekistan are the only survivals of the Scythian (East Iranian) languages once current throughout Central Asia. </div>
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In 135 A.D., king Pharasmenes of Iberia opened the Caucasian Gates (Dariel Pass) to the Alans, who proceeded to ravage Albania and Media before turning westward to menace Roman territory. Arrian, operating from the fortress of Apsarus (modern Gonio) on the Black Sea coast, succeeded in deterring them from Colchis and Cappadocia. The Roman army which Arrian led against the Alans included auxiliaries from Colchis and Armenia. Afterwards he compiled a short treatise, <i>Acies contra Alanos</i> (ed. Hercher, <i>Arriani Nicomedensis scripta minora</i>, 1885), in which he recommends tactical procedures for dealing with the Alans. In this text, Arrian uses the terms <span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">’</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Ala/noi </span>(Alans), and <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Sku/qai</span> (Scythians) interchangeably, and notes that they wore heavy body-armor. According to Pausanias (<i>Graeciae descriptio</i> I.21.5-6), this armor was crafted from segments of horses’ hooves, cleaned, polished, and stitched together. He also notes their use of lassos to unseat enemy horsemen. The Romans dealt with this by hurling special javelins pointed with thin steel shanks, which would lodge in the Alans’ plate-armor and thus encumber their movement (<i>Acies</i> 17).</div>
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In another work, the <i>Ars tactica</i> (ed. Hercher, 1885), Arrian offers further comments on the Alans. Here, he uses the three designations <span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">’</span><span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Ala/noi </span>(Alans), <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Sauroma/tai</span> (Sarmatians), and <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Sku/qai</span> (Scythians) interchangeably. Arrian notes that the Alan horsemen fought in close order (16.6), and comments on the dragon-standards they carried into battle to terrify the enemy (35.2). He also notes their practice of hurling javelins (4.7) and advises the use of the same tactic against them (11.2, 44.1). The Sarmatian horsemen were also armed with six-foot swords, capable of cutting a man in half (Sulimirski, 1970). According to Ammianus Marcellinus, “Nearly all the Alani are men of great stature and beauty; their hair is somewhat yellow, their eyes are frighteningly fierce” (xxxi.2.21).</div>
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The most important cultural contribution of the Sarmatians was the great oral epic cycle concerning the Nartæ (Narts), an extinct race of 99 giants and heroes. Versions of these stories were adopted by most of the peoples of the North Caucasus, and are a rich repository of ancient folklore and cultural information. The Ossetian Nart-cycle has been published by Georges Dumézil (<i>Le livre des héros: Légendes sur les Nartes, </i>1965, in French translation). John Colarusso has published a representative selection of materials from the North Caucasus versions of the Nart epos (<i>Nart sagas from the Caucasus: Myths and legends from the Circassians, Abazas, Abkhaz, and Ubykhs</i>, in a bilingual edition).</div>
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Around 370 A.D., the Alans of the eastern steppe were overwhelmed by the Huns. A portion of them (ancestors of the modern Ossetians) were driven southward into the Caucasus, while another portion fled westward into Europe, settling in Rumania, Hungary, Gaul, and Brittany. The western Alans became associated with the Vandals and Suebi, and established kingdoms in the southern part of the Iberian peninsula and (with the Vandals) in North Africa. The Alans (Sarmatians) exercised an enduring influence on the various European peoples with whom they came in contact. <span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;">The Romans had used Sarmatian mercenaries to garrison Britain, and it is believed that parts of the Sarmatian Nart <i>epos</i> were incorporated into the Arthurian cycle. </span>The kingdom of Poland continued to style itself “Sarmatic” until the abolition of the Polish monarchy in 1795 (Sulimirski, 1970).</div>
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Meanwhile, the Ossetian Alans gained firm control of the Dariel Pass and established themselves on both sides of the “Caucasian Gates,” occupying the territories now known as North and South Ossetia. The Alans were partially converted to Christianity by Byzantine missionaries, and early in the 8<sup>th</sup> century established the powerful kingdom of Alania, which dominated the entire North Caucasus, including the territories of the Circassians extending far to the west. From their capital at Maghas (Maas), the Alans controlled the important trade-route through the Dariel Pass, which gave access to the Silk Road. During the 8<sup>th</sup> century, the Alans, in alliance with the Georgians and the Khazars, opposed the advancing armies of the Arab Caliphate, defeating the Arab general Tabit al-Nahrani in 722; however, the Arabs succeeded in ravaging Alania and occupying the Caucasian Gates on three occasions (in 728, 736, and 756). </div>
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During the 9<sup>th</sup> century, the allied Alans and Khazars opposed the Byzantine Empire. During this time, Khazar influence resulted in the conversion of many Alans to Judaism. However, early in the 10<sup>th</sup> century, the king of Alania was converted to Christianity. Ibn Rustah (circa 910 A.D.) states that “Their king is Christian at heart, but all his people are idolaters.” He goes on to describe the fortress known as the “Gate of the Alans”: "It stands on the top of a mountain at the foot of which there is a road; high mountains surround it and a thousand men from among its inhabitants guard its walls day and night.” (Alemany, p. 260). The king’s conversion resulted in a political realignment. In alliance with the Byzantines, the Alans turned against their Khazar allies. However, they were decisively defeated and their king was captured by the Khazars. This disaster led to a violent reaction against Christianity among the Alans, with the expulsion of Byzantine missionaries and clergy and a return to the Khazar alliance, which lasted until the fall of Khazaria in the 960s. </div>
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During the 11<sup>th</sup> century, the Alans again aligned themselves with the Christian states in their vicinity. Queen Alda of Alania was married to George I of Abkhazia-Georgia. Alania also developed commercial ties with the Rus principality of Tmutarakan in the Crimea, and in 1033 the Alans joined the Rus in sacking Shirvan. The Alans were a major contingent in the armies of the Georgian kings, and Georgian and Alan missionaries succeeded in converting many of the Vainakh and Dvals to Christianity during this period. Maria of Alania, the daughter of the Georgian king Bagrat IV and niece of king Dorgolel of Alania, was married to two Byzantine emperors: Michael VII Doukas (reigned 1071-78) and Nicephorus III Botaniates (reigned 1078-81).</div>
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In 1118/19, David IV Aghmashenebeli travelled to Alania to secure permission for the Kipchaks to pass through the Dariel Pass into Georgia, widening the highway through the mountains for this purpose. These Kipchaks, a Turkic people, provided “40,000 elite soldiers ready for battle,” the backbone of the Georgian army during the so-called “Golden Age” (1089-1225) (Metreveli, 2010). They were ultimately assimilated into the Georgian population.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>In 1189, the Alan prince David Soslan became the second husband of Queen Tamar of Georgia. The kingdom of Alania fell to the Mongols in 1238/39, and Alan auxiliaries participated in the Mongol invasion of Europe. Many of these subsequently accompanied the Mongols back to China. “The Catholic missionary John de Marignolli, who spent five years in China [1342-47], states that there were up to 30,000 <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Ā</span>s [Alans] there. In the course of time they perished in warfare or were absorbed into the local population” (Abaev & Bailey, 1985, ¶7). Another group of Alans migrated westward with a portion of the Kipchaks, settling in Hungary, where they established the principality of Jászság and preserved their language and ethnic identity until the 15<sup>th</sup> century. The Mongol invasion also resulted in an expansion of the Ossetians in the Caucasus toward the southwest, where they assimilated the Dvalians (usually described as a Vainakh people, now extinct) (Dvals, 2011). “Les Dwals sont les moins nobles des Osses. Quand un Osse ou un Dwal devient riche et puissant, il prend deux ou trois femmes et se construit une tour. S’il vient à commetre un meurtre, et qu’il ait le dessous envers la partie intéresée, il entre dans sa tour et ne sort plus jusqu’à la mort” (Wakhousht, 1842, p. 437). </div>
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+ The main point being that the Ossetians long ruled extensive territories in the Caucasus and beyond!</div>
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+ Amazon connection (Sarmatians hybrid) + Ossetian rebel woman, 2008</div>
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+ During Soviet times, Ossetians were recruited to police Tbilisi. It is interesting to note that the police force of ancient Athens, likewise, “was mainly composed of Scythian slaves” (Liddell, p. 1616, s.v. <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Sku/qhv</span>).</div>
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<b>*2*</b></div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Ossetian god Art’awyz has interesting lunar associations. According to legend, God created four good things: Art’awyz (the greatest of them), mankind, sheep, and wheat. But at the devil’s instigation He created womankind for man, goats for sheep, and bitter-tasting weeds for wheat. Art’awyz was created for our good, but he undertook to teach people wickedness. So God appointed Wacilla (the god of thunder and lightning) to take charge of Art’awyz. Wacilla nailed Art’awyz inside the Moon with iron nails. If he breaks free, he devours people, so every blacksmith strikes his anvil an extra time (Abaev, 1958-89). This story is clearly connected to the Greek myth of Prometheus and to the Georgian myth of Amirani, from which both are probably derived. The name Art’awyz is cognate to the Armenian <i>Art’avazd</i> (Abaev, 1958-89). It is especially interesting that while this myth appears to explain the origin of the “man in the moon,” it offers no explanation of lunar eclipses. [2 Georgian versions of Art’awyz; ARV (sky); upper sky; arv-naesyn (thunder); arv-yrttuvd (lightning); arv-yrdyn (sky-bow, i.e. rainbow); The sky struck us. The horse bore him between sky and earth. Smarter than I there is none under the sky. Arvy ron (sky-belt, i.e. rainbow); ZAEXX, MIIGH, WARYNB, WAD (check these also)]</div>
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The most archaic and most interesting and really Iranian part are the tales around the heroine Satana (she has great magic powers and is the owner of a mirror where she can see what happens on earth and in heaven), about whose (historical) personality and whose name Jost and I have published several articles (please cf. our resp. bibliographies).</div>
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Passages on "Oinon calx" (a celestial wheel which can develop a rather destructive power), and also some remarks on the morning and evening stars. </div>
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In Ossetia astrology has no tradition of whatsoever. Even my teacher, Vasilij Abaev, didn't know the date of his birth. I could tell you the same about many other people. [Sonja Gippert-Fritz, personal communication, 3 July 2011]</div>
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• Rekom, N. Ossetia “where the sacrificed ram skulls were stacked on shelves against the log cabin walls. The same many-headed motif also appeared on tapestry carpets” (Chenciner, 1997, pp. 145-46).</div>
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ABAEV notes:</div>
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Volume I: 48, 70, 142, 156, 170, 175 re. Ærfæn (man in clouds), 182 [4-6-0], 199, 220, 287-8 re. calx, 323 re. month cyppurs, (Sun, Venus), 519 (giorguba), 582-3 re. kærdæghy st’aly (evening star)</div>
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Volume 2: 83 re. mæj (Moon), 225-26 re. Ojnon calx</div>
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Volume 4:246-8 re. xur (Sun)</div>
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Mæj = Moon</div>
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p. 561: izær = evening</div>
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p. 576: kæfqºyndar = dragon</div>
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p. 577: kælkæl = gromkii smex</div>
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• cuppurs = Christian winter holiday (end November + ½ December = Digor ‘cuppor’ = ‘40’), replaced by ‘2 20s’ but preserved in shepherd’s counting system (follows a 40-day fast).</div>
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• Ojnon (wheel) = sun; associated with John the Baptist, his daughter insulted); Ioanne = Ojnon (A=O before nasals); okol colntsy (“the eye of the Sun”—state for them to sparkle/twinkle), “for the frog, its offspring are like for us the light of the sun,” “from where, for you, does the Sun come up?”, “Satana washed his pants and spread them out in the sun”, “lay out the / make your road to the sun”, Sun = happiness (in many idioms), “The great heavenly light of the Ossetians (as with other peoples) was considered to be a god. His daughter Asuruxs important in Nart epos, in cycle of Soslan, his meeting of Wasiruxs with hero Soslan is parallel to Mahabharata. Dumezil: dedication of horse to deceased = hero Maxamat. Nart hero = child of Sun. One day/at one time the Sun had children, the Nart heros. “Nartay” means children of the sun. In one text, ‘huru kuz,’ Sun = female; the Moon is found in its half-moon phase (full circle) [p. 288]</div>
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• g<sub>º</sub>ym<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ī</span>ry (gumeri, gaemeri) = giant, cudgel, idol; cf. Geo. gmiri (hero); Os. “barbarian other”; Akk. Gimirri; Hb. Gomer; Ru. <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Кумир</span><span style="font: 12.0px Cambria;"> [p. 530]</span></div>
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• Farn = “sky-sun”, heavenly blessing, good fortune, peace, prosperity, more or less = an angel or power for good. Farn reigns! (best man calls out at wedding as he leads bride into groom’s house). [pp. 421-22]</div>
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Bonværnan [Bonfarnon, Bonværnæ, Bobyrnon, Bobron] [Bonværn = bony farn (“path of day”)] = Venus (morning star) = the one bringing news of the day’s farn: Farn = Sun in hunting language (!!). In that time snow did not fall, since Venus was found in confinement; Venus twinkles with her eye; our Venus emited white lights with her own fire [p. 267]</div>
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• Donbettyr (water being[s]) = Peter (“water-Peter”) = hydronomy (Don, Dniestr, Dniepr, Donau); St. Peter = Wastyržy; St. Ilya = Wacilla [pp. 367-68]</div>
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• Xur = sun, happiness. Last light of setting sun; sun of the dead; cf. Georgian expression “to leave something in the sun” = to bring to light something negative = make an orphan; sun-golden = cult name of sun, “my sun” = my dear, “the sun over us has set and the moon/month will no longer be lit”. “The Sun was going along on the surface of the earth,” “by what sun, by what inclement weather were you carried here?” “The fell into the abyss without water and sun began to sparkle for them.” Volume 4:246-8</div>
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[A: 48-9, 70-71, 72-73; AE: 142-43, 156-57, 170-71, 174-75, 182-83, 198-99, 220-21; B: 234-35, 266-67; C: 286-89, 314-17, 322-23; D: 366-69; F: 420-23; G: 518-19, 530-31; I: 542-43, 560-61; K: 576-77, 582-83; M: 82-83; O: 224-225; X: 246-47]</div>
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• arv = nebo; arvnæryn = thunder; arvyrttyvd = thunderbolt, flash of lightning.</div>
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• Ærfæn = horse of the Nart Uruzmag; Ærfæny fæd = Milky Way (path of A.); alternately, the name of a person living in the sky, the Milky Way being the straw he scattered while fleeing from Batraz.</div>
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• ærtx<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ū</span>ron / ærtxoron = special pie in honor of the sun (new year); art-x<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ū</span>ron = solar fire / fire, child of the sun</div>
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• ævdiiw / ævdew = evil spirit, demon; “then seven demons from seven pits began to blow into their bellows, and the land was embraced with fire”; tying a cross to the hoop/handle of a cradle to protect the baby from evil spirits; Indo-Iranian daiva = don + æv (water-spirit).</div>
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• don = river; water (cf. Don, Donau, Dniester, Dnieper, Tanais) = -dan in composition; Kuban = <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">OuÍar-dan-hv</span> (Ptol 1.162 ?); Tanais = DON; Dan-apr = <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Днепр</span>; Dan-Astr = <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Днестр</span>; Scyth. <span style="font: 12.0px SLGreek;">Danda/rioi</span> (Dandarii) = dar+dan; <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">владеющие рекой</span> [pp. 366-367]</div>
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• <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">ī</span>lci, elci . . . (mentions Georgian Military Hwy) [p. 530 ?543]</div>
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• Balsæg [Malsæg, Marsæg, Marsug, Barsag, Barsæg] = miraculous wheel, killed Soslan (Balsæg’y calx); cut him off at the knees, Batradz broke out Balsæg’s wheel and put it in the cemetery and dedicated it to Soslan; the god went to Barsagy; he had a moving, spinning wheel; the wheel of Balsæg undoubtedly represented the Sun; Balsæg, Malsæg are derived from INGUSH (Malx-sæg “sun-man/person”, cf. Ojnon) [p. 234]</div>
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• kærdæg’y st’aly [lit. “star of grains”] = (Evening Star) [s.v. Bonværnon, p. 267]</div>
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• coppaj = ceremonial dance and song around a place struck by thunder = refrain repeating/ed or accomplishment of this ceremony = ceremonial walking around villages in time of drought [Cherkes <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">č</span>oppa; Abazin; Abkhaz <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">č</span>aupar / <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">č</span>opa; Balkar, Karachay <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">č</span>oppa]; among the Ossetians, belonging to traveler of the end of the 18<sup>th</sup> century, boy killed by lightning, “O Elia Elia aeldari coppaj” (Stöder, <i>Tagebuch einer Reise, die im Jahr 1781 von der Greuzfestung Mosdok nach dem inneren Caucasus unternomen worden</i>); Abkhaz & Cherkess concepts are exactly analogous to the Ossetian [pp. 314-16]</div>
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Lightning was of especial importance to the Ossetians, descended as they were from the Scythians of the open steppes. Lightning was the special province of the god Wasilla, who in Christian times came to be identified with the prophet Elijah. Like other peoples of the Caucasus, they regarded persons struck by lightning as selected by the gods for special honor. The victim’s neighbors and relatives gathered around the body where it lay. Mourning was prohibited; rather, the event was celebrated with dancing and singing. Persons who had been struck by lightning and survived acted as priests on such occasions, their inspired utterances dictating the spot where the body was to be interred.</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>8. Armenian Tradition</b></span></div>
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The Armenians are connected to the ancient Phrygians, who crossed from the Balkans into Asia Minor during the 12<sup>th</sup> century B.C. [Yamauchi] Together with the Thracians of the Balkans, they formed a separate (“Thraco-Phrygian”) branch of Indo-European, of which the Armenian language is the only modern survivor. </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Armeno-Phrygians are an Indo-European people who separated from the Thracians in the Balkans, crossing the Hellespont into Asia Minor during the 12<sup>th</sup> century B.C. (Yamauchi, 1982). The well-known Greek story of King Midas of Phrygia attaches to the historical personage known to Assyrian records as Mita of Mushki (fl. 709 B.C.). Thus, Greek sources refer to the Phrygian ethnonym, while Assyrian sources reference the district he ruled. Herodotus (REF) says that the Moschi formed part of the 19<sup>th</sup> satrapy of the Persian Empire, while the Armenians comprised the 13<sup>th</sup> satrapy, and the Phrygians were included in the 3<sup>rd</sup> satrapy. Thus, it appears that the “Mushki” mentioned in Assyrian sources of the 12<sup>th</sup>-9<sup>th</sup> centuries B.C. were Kartvelians, while the “Mushki” who were allied with Sargon II in the 8<sup>th</sup> century B.C. were Phrygians.</div>
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Ps.-Meshech: In Cappadocia (Josephus); Herodotus: Moschoi in eastern Asia Minor = Phrygians (Herodotus): FROM EUROPE INTO ASIA DURING 12c BC (Yamauchi 82:27) + Mita of Mushki (his tomb) “The houses here were underground, with a mouth like that of a well, but spacious below; and while entrances were tunneled down for the beasts of burden, the human inhabitants descended by a ladder. In the houses were goats, sheep, cattle, fowls, and their youyng; and all the animals were reared and took their fodder there in the houses” (Xenophon, Anabasis IV.v.25-26).</div>
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Some further east, along Black Sea. Until their expulsion from Turkey early in the 20<sup>th</sup> century, the eastern Armenian territories extended as far as the Mediterranean. “the first Kartvelian-Armenian contacts in the 7<sup>th</sup>-6<sup>th</sup> centuries B.C.” (Klimov, 1998, p. 227). </div>
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KINGDOM + Mithridates takes refuge with Tigranes [69 BC] (Appian, <i>Historia Romana</i> XII.xi.82) Tigranes the Great (“Great King,” 4 kings attended him at all times)Conversion of Armenia in 301 AD (first Christian state) + MONOPHYSITES + lance, fire-temple; medieval greatness / decline; meliks (1723) + Emin + Griboyedov + Russian conquest (battle of Echmiadzin). + integrate sources from 11-11 (Mayflower, CAH, Yamauchi, Xenophon, Tigranes) + bookmarked stuff from Wikipedia (temples to sun/moon/stars, horse-sacrifices to the Sun; somebody or other A…. priest of the moon)</div>
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The important Neolithic site of Carahunge, near Sisian in southern Armenia, apparently served as an astronomical observatory, comprising about 200 standing stones. Built during the 3<sup>rd</sup> millennium B.C. (long before the appearance of the Armenians in the region), “the site broadly resembles many better-known megalithic monuments on the Atlantic seaboard of Europe, and particularly in Britain, Ireland, and Brittany” (Ruggles, 2005, p. 65). This site is especially remarkable because about 50 of the stones have holes bored through them with “carefully smoothed edges,” facilitating observation of specific points above the horizon. “These facts raise the serious possibility that the holes were used for astronomical observations, whether contemporary with the construction of the original monument or later” (Ruggles, 2005, pp. 66-67).</div>
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Hayk, the eponymous ancestor of the Armenians, was associated with the planet Mercury and was described as having “very curly hair and sparkling eyes.” Another Armenian deity, Vahagn (a sun-god, identified by Christian Armenians with the Canaanite Baal), “had hair of fire...and his eyes were two suns." (Hayk—the national god of Armenians, 2004, ¶2). Xenophon (<i>Anabasis</i> IV.v.35) mentions the Armenian practice of sacrificing horses to the Sun.</div>
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A carved gemstone (reproduced in Peck, 1962, p. 1579) portrays the “royal tiara of an Armenian king.” This tiara is decorated with three stars in the crown and three stars on the rim. A coin of Tigranes II (“the Great,” reigned 95-55 B.C.) portrays the king wearing a tiara decorated with an object that is clearly identifiable as a comet with a curved tail. Armenian scholars have suggested that this image commemorates the appearance of Halley’s Comet in 87 B.C. However, Halley’s Comet always has a straight tail. For this reason, Mayor (2010) proposes that the comet which appears on Tigranes’ coins was in fact one of the “war banner” comets which appeared in 135 and 119 B.C. (p. 32). </div>
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According to Movses Khorenatsi (Moses of Khoren), king Artashes (2<sup>nd</sup> century B.C.) “paid special attention to several sciences development and, among them, the calendar theory. The tradition connects the beginning of Armenian era with the victory of patriarch Hayk against Bel, and the name sof Armenian months with names of his sons and daughters, which were Navasardi, Hori, Sahmi, Tre, Kaghots, Arats, Meheki, Areg, Ahki, Mareri, Margats, Hrortits. It must be mentioned that all these 12 months had 30 days and the supplementary month Avelats of 5 days was added to them” (Eynatyan, 2007, p. 5).</div>
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Movses Khorenatsi writes concerning the pre-Christian Armenian king Eruand (Arbandes; 2<sup>nd</sup> century A.D.) that “through magic he had the evil eye. So the royal servants who attended him at daybreak had the habit of placing hard stones opposite Eruand. And they say that these hard stones split from the malevolence of his glance. But this is either false and a fable or else he had some demonic power in himself so that he could harm those he wished in this fashion by the mere repute of his gaze” (<i>Patmut’iwn Hayoc’ </i>I.42, trans. Thomson). </div>
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The Christian Armenians were deeply interested in certain aspects of astronomy and astrology. There are numerous sundials from the early Christian period, inscribed with the letters of Armenian alphabet used as numerals. These were always placed on the south wall of churches and monasteries. The sundial at Zvartnots Cathedral dates to the 7<sup>th</sup> century (Eynatyan, 2007). Christina Maranci of Tufts University is currently compiling a large database of Armenian sundials, to be expanded to include sundials from all parts of the Caucasus. </div>
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The Armenians “marked their break with Byzantium and the Greek Orthodox Church by introducing a national era which begins in AD 552 and runs continuously thereafter” (Lang, 1966, p. 106). The Armenian era began on 11 July, 552 (Eynatyan, 2007). For this reason, the Armenians were understandably interested in calendrical theory. Armenian manuscripts are extremely rich in treatises dedicated to the theory of the calendar. Monastic schools offered courses in calendar theory.</div>
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During the 7<sup>th</sup> century, the mathematician and philosopher Anania Shirakatsi was commissioned by the <i>Catholicos</i> to reform the Armenian calendar. He sought to coordinate the Armenian calendar with the Julian, Hebrew, Assyrian, and Greek calendars. “He rejected superstitions and astrology, and though his astronomical system was a geocentric one, he knew that the Earth has the form of a globe and does not lie on anything. He believed that antipodes exist, that the Milky Way consists of a multitude of weakly shining stars and that the Moon has not its own light” (Eynatyan, 2007, p. 6). Anania Shirakatski composed a very important work entitled “Chapters of the Calendar Theory,” including chapters on the Armenian, Roman, Greek, Assyrian, Hebrew, old Arabic, Ethiopian, Egyptian, Athenian, Cappadocian, Buthanian, Caucasian Albanian, Georgian, and Persian calendars. Short and long versions of this work are found in more than 90 MSS at the Matenadaran, dating from the 13<sup>th</sup> to the 19<sup>th</sup> centuries. The 13<sup>th</sup>/14<sup>th</sup> through 18<sup>th</sup>/19<sup>th</sup> centuries). Cf. “Star Book”. The broad dissemination and currency of this work is comparable to that of the “Star Book” among the Georgians. </div>
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During the 11<sup>th</sup> century, the philosopher Hohannes Yerzynkatsi introduced the Minor Era, beginning 11 August 1085, and “changing the Theophany and vernal equinox days each fourth year” (p. 6)</div>
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There are also numerous Armenian manuscripts which describe the construction and use of the astrolabe. Two Arab astrolabes bearing Armenian inscriptions are preserved at the Oxford History Museum. These date to the 9<sup>th</sup> or 10<sup>th</sup> century. There is also an Armenian-made astolabe at Echmiadzin dating to the 10<sup>th</sup> century (note that the astrolabe was unknown in Western Europe until the late 10<sup>th</sup> century). The Armenians were interested in the astrolabe not only for astronomical observations, but also as an aid to solving practical problems such as determining the height and distance of mountains and the width of rivers. </div>
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One Armenian manuscript describes the supernova of 1006 A.D. This is the only reference to this event apart from Chinese and Japanese sources. </div>
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During the 1720s, Yeghia Karnetsi composed a manuscript “On Geography” which “describes the heliocentric system and mentions that there is no reason to deny this theory” (Eynatyan, 2007, p. 2). “The first Armenian printed book openly speaking about the heliocentric system is the “Little Book called Principle of Natural Sciences” by S. Abkarian published in 1796 in Rome.” (p. 2). </div>
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Hovhannes Sarkavag <i>Imastaser</i> (John the Deacon, <i>circa </i>1047-1129) revised some parts of the “Chapters” of Anania Shirakatsi, and Hacob Ghrimetsi (15<sup>th</sup> century) corrected and expanded it to include “other subjects.” “We can mention a text, which occurs in “Zigs” and “Chapters”, as well as in the “Almagest”. It speaks of connections existing between celestial bodies, parts of human body and nations. Here the Zodiac constellation of Aries corresponds to Persia and the human head; the Cancer constellation corresponds to Armenia and human chest; the Pisces constellation corresponds to India and human feet, and so on. In some manuscripts one can also find pictures devoted to this” (p. 7). </div>
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Thus, despite Anania Shirakatsi’s rejection of “superstitions and astrology,” astrology survived and flourished among the Armenians. In Armenia just as in Western Europe, the church’s concerns about the Christian calendar led to the production of a vast calendrical literature (the “Computus” in Western Europe), to which astrological texts attached themselves parasitically. By the 18<sup>th</sup> century (at least), Armenian treatises devoted entirely to astrology were being produced. An 18<sup>th</sup>-century astrological manuscript which I saw on display at the Matenadaran (July 2009) invites comparison to the roughly contemporary Georgian “Star Book” manuscript Q-867. (get the number from my notebook).</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>9. Kalmyk Tradition</b></span></div>
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The Oirats, the western branch of the Mongols, were traditionally divided into four tribes (Dörben Oirat, <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Дөрвөн Ойрад): the Khoshut, the Choros, the Torghut, and the D</span>örbet. In 1618, conflicts over grazing lands resulted in the westward migration of the entire Torghut tribe under their <i>tayishi</i> (prince; Chi. <i>Tai-tze</i>), Kho-Urlük. By 1630 they had reached the steppes of the Lower Volga, where they settled on lands previously ruled by the Khanate of Astrakhan, which had fallen to the Russians in 1556. Their initial settlement was to the left of the Volga, between the Yaik and Volga rivers. The Torghuts ravaged the dominions of the Nogai Horde, driving most of the Nogais to the west, where they placed themselves under the protection of the Crimean Khan, and reducing those who remained to vassalage (Khodarkovsky, 1992). </div>
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The new Torghut state eventually became known as the Kalmyk Khanate (Kalmykia), and the Torghuts became known as Kalmyks. They controlled the steppe-lands along the northern edge of the Caspian Sea. This became an important buffer-zone between the Russians and the Muslim peoples to the south.</div>
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The Kalmyks had embraced Buddhism early in the 17<sup>th</sup> century and were adherents of the <i>Gelugpa</i> (“Yellow Hat”) sect, subject to the Dalai Lama. The <i>Iki Tsaadzhin Bichig</i> (“Great Code of the Nomads”), promulgated in 1640 by the leaders of the Oirats together with some of the Eastern Mongols, formalized this conversion and established a legal code binding on all Western Mongols (Khodarkovsky, 1992). </div>
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The Kalmyks had developed trading relationships with the Russians prior to their migration, since the Kazakhs to the west of them would not permit them to trade with the Islamic Khanates of Central Asia. After an initial period of military conflict, the Russians came to see the Kalmyks as a useful counter to their Muslim enemies, and Kalmyk cavalry frequently fought in support of the Russians during their wars with the the Crimean Tatars, the Turks, the Nogais, the Kumyks, the Persians, and the Uzbek Khanates of Khiva and Bukhara. For example, during the 1650s the Crimean Khan “demanded that Moscow forbid the Kalmyks to roam along the Volga near Astrakhan and threatened to attack the Muscovite lands unless the tsar severed ties with the Kalmyks” (Khodarkovsky, 1992, p. 89). In 1657, the Kalmyks were required to swear an oath which prohibited them from allying themselves with either the Ottoman sultan or the Crimean khan. In 1697, the Tsar granted Ayuki Khan two light cannon, three mortars, a corps of artillerists, and an annual supply of gunpowder and bullets (Khodarkovsky, 1992). The oaths that governed Russo-Kalmyk relations required the Kalmyks to present themselves at short notice in case of war with the Crimean Tatars. In addition, “the Kalmyks remained the principal suppliers of horses for the Russian cavalry until the 1740s. Then the situation changed, as the Kalmyk herds diminished substantially because of the unfavorable weather conditions, internal wars, and Russia’s ceaseless demands for large-scale Kalmyk participation in military campaigns” (Khodarkovsky, 1992, p. 28). </div>
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The Kalmyks were superb horsemen and formidable warriors. Since gunpowder was in short supply (traditionally obtained through raids on the Bukharans), their principal weapons were the composite bow, the spear, the saber, and the whip. “Often witnesses were astonished by the Kalmyks’ skillful use of the whip. There were several different strike techniques, and with one blow of a whip a Kalmyk could kill a wolf or dismount and mortally wound a horseman” (Khodarkovsky, 1992, p. 49).</div>
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Having shifted their area of settlement to the right of the Volga, the Kalmyks also came into frequent conflict with the peoples of Daghestan and the North Caucasus. In 1644, the Kalmyk <i>tayishi</i> Kho-Urlük perished (along with his son, two grandsons, and most of his army) in a confrontation with 10,000 Kabardinians under Prince Alayuk (Alaguk), supported by a detachment of Nogai Tatars. The Kabardins, armed with muskets, held a mountain pass against the Kalmyks for an entire day; the arrival of Nogai cavalry towards nightfall proved decisive (Khodarkovsky, 1992).</div>
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The Russians feared the possibility that the Kalmyks might ally themselves with other Islamized Mongolic peoples such as the Crimean Tatars and the Nogais, and attempted to restrict their communication and trade to the west. According to Khodarkovsky (1992), any Kalmyk found trading with the Tatars was to be punished by hanging and his goods confiscated (p. 123).</div>
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These restrictions were unacceptable to the Kalmyks, especially after 1724 when (upon the death of Ayuki Khan) the khanate was reduced to Russian vassalage. Conflicts with the Russian administration led to the departure of most of the Kalmyks from the Russian empire in 1770. The Kalmyk <i>tayishi</i> Ubashi Khan wrote to the Dalai Lama requesting an astrologically favorable date for their departure. The date of 5 January 1770 was selected, and on that day as many as 400,000 people set out for Dzungaria (northern Sinkhiang), accompanied by 6 million animals (Khodarkovsky, 1992). Only 85,000 Kalmyks survived the journey to Dzungaria, however, where they arrived in July 1771. The Ch’ing (Manchu) government had recently conquered and annexed the Dzungar Khanate (1755), acquiring hegemony over the whole of Sinkhiang. This was followed by what Mark Levene describes as "arguably the eighteenth century genocide par excellence" (REF). In some districts, the Chinese government ordered the extermination of all males. Out of an initial population of about 600,000, 40% fell victim to smallpox, 30% were exterminated by the Chinese military, and 20% took refuge among the Kazakhs and the Russians (SOURCEPerdue 2005; Clarke 2004). The Kalmyks were allowed to cross the border and settle in these depopulated districts under the close supervision of the Manchu government. “An interesting legend has been preserved about how a Chinese emperor of the Ming dynasty, Yun-Li, in 1410 conferred a jade signet ring with his personal initials on the Oirat khan Mergeni Erketu. This ring was passed on as an heirloom among the Kalmyk khans, the last of whom, Ubushi khan in 1772 entrusted it to the Manchu emperor in the town of Dzhekhay” (Guchinova, 2006, p. 145).</div>
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It so happens that on the day chosen for departure, 70,000 Kalmyks became stranded on the right bank of the Volga by a breakup of ice in the river, and these remained in the Russian empire (Guchinova, 2006). Their participation in Pugachev’s Revolt (<span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;">Пугачёвское восстание; </span>1773-75) resulted in further restrictions. The Kalmyks remain to this day as the only Buddhist ethnic group native to Europe.</div>
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The Kalmyks were notorious for cannibalism, as described by the 17<sup>th</sup>-century Turkish traveler Evliya Çelebi: “The fact that human flesh is tasty is something I witnessed among the Kalmyk cannibals in the Kipchak Steppe. They eat the corpses of their dead, and they also strangle and eat some of their poor Nogay captives—they do not cut their throats, so as not to lose their blood, but just strangle them, cook them and eat them. The Kalmyks claim that there is nothing tastier than human flesh, snake meat, and pork; and the tastiest part is the pig’s tail and the ‘tail’ or coccyx of humans. There are in fact many men of the Kalmyk persuasion in Turkey who know of this taste.” (2010b, p. 385) “Some of the Kalmyks live to be 200 or 300 years old. When a man’s vigour is spent and he can no longer mount and dismount, his kinfolk tire of dragging him around. They cook him a fat sheep’s tail and stuff it into his mouth, forcing him to consume it entire. In this fashion they put him to death, saying that he died a martyr. They also eat one another’s flesh, but this is done according to lot as follows: </div>
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“They have a man known as Karpa, next in authority after their Tai-shi or king. This Karpa has a four-sided wooden lot that has been passed down from his ancestors over several thousands of years. Each side is painted a different colour. When one of their leading men dies, they cast the lot to determine his fate. If the red side comes up, they interpret the oracle to mean ‘Burn him in fire,’ and they burn his body.<sup> </sup> If the black side comes up it means ‘Bury him in the black earth,’ and they bury his body. If the blue side comes up it means ‘Throw him into the water,’ and they throw him in the Volga River or in whatever body of water they happen to have camped near. If the green side comes up they cook his body and eat it. They only act according to the instruction of the oracle lot.</div>
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“One day it happened that one of the Moyinçak Shah’s sons had died. They roasted his body, poured out the fat and blood, and were eating the flesh, accompanied by great merriment and festivity. When I passed by they invited me to the feast, saying: ‘Come, you too can partake of our emperor’s son.’ ‘Can one eat human flesh?’ I asked. ‘Indeed,’ they replied. ‘We eat his flesh so that his soul will enter one of us. Thus he does not die, but goes on together with us. . . . If you eat human flesh you will derive eternal life from its sweetness and will live long, like us.’</div>
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“In that meal, the body of one man was enough to feed forty or fifty Kalmyks. As for the fat, they smeared it over their faces and eyes and bodies; and they buried the bones.” (Evliya Çelebi, 2010b, pp. 254-55)</div>
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When the Russians entered Bucharest (December 1806), their Kalmyk auxiliaries were allowed to terrorize the city’s Jewish population. “They passed daily through the streets . . ., spitted children on their lances, and, in the presence of their parents, roasted them alive and devoured them” (Hermalin, 1905, p. 514).</div>
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Erek’le II of K’akheti-Kartli relied upon mercenaries to wage his unceasing wars. “In 1749, a large proportion of the troops which Irakli was raising to fight Sharji-Panah were Cherkesses and also Ossetians, Pshavs, Khevsurs and Tushes. Two years later Irakli was sending agents all over Cherkezeti to recruit further contingents, and in 1752 he secured also the support of a Lazghi contingent under the Shamkhal’s son for the campaign against Hajji-Chelebi. After the defeat of the Georgians by Hajji-Chelebi, Irakli himself went up to the Khevi and was anxiously concerned to attract bands from Cherkezeti and Osseti, and when Agha Kish retired the Cherkess leaders were treated to five days feasting at Dighomi. Papouna Orbeliani has left a curious description of the impression created by these alpine mercenaries on the minds of the urbane Georgians. ‘The auxiliary troops required by the kings arrived at Ananuri. There were Cherkez, Kalmuks, Jiks, Kists, Ghlighwis, Nogais and Ossetians; each nation commanded by its chiefs and professing a particular religion, Islam or more generally idolatry; some uncouth men feeding on foul and unclean food, some of a superb appearance, others of a hideous ugliness, hairless and beardless, with excessively coarse noses; all, in battle, fine horsemen and intrepid archers.” (Allen, 1971, pp. 203-204) The description of some of these men as “hairless and beardless, with excessively coarse noses” almost certainly refers to the Kalmyks, who had Oriental features.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Many Kalmyk traditional practices suggest a belief in Sympathetic Magic. For example, “the umbilical cord was cut with a knife specially prepared for this purpose. Three days later the afterbirth and the bedding of the woman who had given birth were buried inside the tent not far from the hearth. The knife, umbilical cord and a silver coin were wrapped up in a white shawl and kept in a trunk” (Guchinova, 2006, p. 119). Later on, a similar bundle containing hair from the child’s first haircut would also be deposited in the trunk. Fingernail and toenail clippings were always buried underneath the tent.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Jewelry was of the greatest cultural importance. “It was thought that silver had the greatest power against unclean spirits, who are incapable of lifting even the lightest silver coin. . . . it was thought that women and men were obliged to wear rings and earrings as otherwise, instead of these ornaments, snakes would be hung on their ears and fingers in the kingdom of Erlik Nomin-khan, ruler of the underworld. Married women wore earrings in both ears, unmarried ladies only on the right and men only on the left. In this appears thinking in the form of binary oppositions, which are traditional in the Mongolian world, according to which a woman’s soul is located in the right half of the body whereas a man’s soul is on his left. Therefore a man wore on his left everything of silver: an earring, a ring on his finger and a knife. . . . A married woman wore rings on all fingers of her left hand” (Guchinova, 2006, pp. 146-47).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Buddhist temples and monasteries were constructed throughout the Kalmyk domains. Most families devoted one of their sons to the monastic life. “Especially popular among the Kalmyks were the eleven-faced Avolokiteshvara and the White and Green Taras (<i>Tsagan Därke</i> and <i>Nogan Därke</i>), who were female deities. . . . Catherine the Great was declared in her day to be one of the incarnations of the White Tara as a gracious protectress of the Kalmyk clergy” (Guchinova, 2006, pp. 171-72).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Alongside the Buddhist clergy there functioned various shamans (<i>bö</i>), including those known as <i>zadychi</i>, “people to whom were attributed the power to summon rain, lightning or thunder” (Guchinova, 2006, p. 127). Evliya Çelebi gives an interesting account of a Kalmyk shaman who presented himself to Ak Mehmed Pasha on the banks of the Kuban (1667) after a devastating windstorm had disrupted the advance of the Ottoman army:</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“At this juncture an ancient Kalmyk Tatar with a scanty beard approached the Pasha and said: ‘Pasha, swear that you won’t harm me.’</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“The pasha put his hand on a Koran and swore: ‘Neither I nor my servants will harm you.’</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“‘My lord,’ said the Kalmyk, ‘it was I who just now raised this calamitous wind upon your heads and had it sweep away so many carts and so many tents. I did it to demonstrate a small part of the science that is in my possession. If you wish to cross this river, give me one horse and one bow-and-arrow case and one fur garment and 100 <i>guru</i><span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ş</i></span>. I will summon up calamity again and make the river freeze up. Then you will easily cross to the other side and to safety, and will be delivered from hunger on this side.’</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“Poor Mehmed Pasha, helpless, agreed and gave the Kalmyk even more than he had asked for. The Kalmyk took the items, tied them down a little ways off, then went into a wooded glade. He was still visible where he was standing in the woods. No one else knew what was transpiring, only this humble one and the Pasha and his secretary.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“The sun by this time was shining brightly. I followed the Kalmyk and stayed hidden some distance away amidst some trees so I could observe. The first thing he did was to loose a shower of piss at the foot of a tall tree. Then he bared his buttocks—excuse the expression—and turned to face the open air. Standing up he took some excrement from his anus, put it in his mouth, then did three somersaults on the snow. Returning to the pile of his excrement he put both hands on the ground, raised his feet into the air and braced them against the aforementioned tree. He stirred up his excrement with his left hand and rubbed some on his forehead with his finger. For quite a while the Kalmyk remained upside-down perched over his shit.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“What should I see next? The sky began to darken in the eastern and western and northern directions. The sun faded above us. The sky turned deep blue and then black. There was thunder and lightning. A horrible wind blew up. The bluish cloud seemed to break into pieces and descend to earth.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“Now the Kalmyk brought his feet down from where they were braced against the tree. He turned around three or four times near his excrement. Occasionally he scooped up some of it in his hand and threw it into the air, at which lightning struck and all hell broke loose.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“At this point our soldiers began to swarm around the shore of the Kuban. Everyone looked for some means to cross the river. The Kalmyk wiped off the excrement from his forehead with snow and started walking toward the soldiers. I ran behind him and, when I caught up, greeted him in the Kalmyk language, ‘<i>Mandu tav</i>.’</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“‘<i>Tav mandu</i>,’ he said, returning the greeting. He took a stone out of his mouth the size of a walnut, rubbed it on his eyes and put it back in his bosom. He wiped some more excrement off his forehead with snow. Twirling about, he approached the Pasha whom we found standing at the shore of the river. </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“‘Don’t cross yet,’ said the Kalmyk. He himself crossed over the ice first with a hopping gait, then recrossed to our side. Now all the soldiers on foot began to cross back and forth. The ice was still paper thin but, as God is my witness, when the men crossed, the ice crackled beneath their feet and cracked into segments the size of a dinner-spread.” (2010b, pp. 270-72)</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>I reproduce this passage <i>in extenso</i> because it appears to offer an authentic account of Kalmyk shamanic practices (as well as a fascinating early modern example of anthropological fieldwork!).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“According to Kalmyk traditional concepts, two spirits accompany each person in his or her life: a <i>zayachy</i> from among the white tengri and an <i>elchy</i> from among the evil tengri. Apart from this, there existed belief in the evil eye, in the power of a cursing ‘black tongue’ and in the predestination of a child’s fate according to the time and place of birth, or by the choice of name and many other factors” (Guchinova, 2006, p. 118).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Astrology was an important part of Kalmyk traditional beliefs, which retained strong traces of a pre-Buddhist solar cult: “Movement in the same direction as the sun is one of the mandatory rules of folk etiquette: to come up to the nomad tent, to depart or to pass on something in a circle could only be done according to the movement of the sun, in a direction from left to right. A breach of the solar order, movement contrary to the sun’s direction, was tolerable only on breaking the usual pattern of life—for example, if a divorce was at the woman’s initiative she was compelled to circle a temple three times in the opposite direction to that of the sun” (Guchinova, 2006, p. 161).</div>
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Traditionally, the cult of the hearth had solar associations: “The hearth was the most sacred place in the house: semantically, it was somewhat akin to having a little sun in each home. Therefore an especially respectful attitude was required towards the hearth and the fire within the hearth. It was forbidden to splash water into the hearth, to throw rubbish into it, to touch the fire with a knife or any other sharp implement or to sleep with one’s legs stretched out in a direction towards the hearth. Ritual food in the form of the sun and solar ornamentation in embroidery are enduring motifs in Kalmyk culture. All that is most excellent is compared with the sun” (Guchinova, 2006, p. 161).</div>
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The Kalmyk astrological system was of Mongolian origin. The Mongolian system, along with other astrological systems of the Far East, is entirely unrelated to the western systems. It is characterized by the <i>dodecaeteris</i>—familiar twelve-year animal cycle of Chinese astrology (actually based on the twelve-year cycle of Jupiter). “Often a person’s character is thought to be determined by the year in which that person was born. Thus a man born in the year of the hen should be like a cock—that is, be amorous, love finery and try to be the centre of attention—whereas somebody born in the year of the dragon guards his home and family from bolts of lightning. According to an old superstition, the year in which a person is born would always carry for that person the most danger, misfortune and illness. Since Kalmyks thought that a person was born already a year old, taking into consideration pre-natal development, they reckoned the ages of thirteen and twenty-five to be dangerous, but especially dangerous the ages of thirty-seven and forty-nine, if one counted it in the Kalmyk way. In order to survive the ‘dangerous’ years successfully, it was vital to perform a rite for the prolongation of years (<i>nasan uttullgn</i>) (Guchinova, 2006, p. 173). “So that the husband and wife are better suited to one another, it is considered that they ought both to have been born in either a ‘soft’ or a ‘hard’ year of the twelve-year animal cycle. Right up to the present time a superstition has been preserved that misfortunes (<i>harsh</i>) lie in wait for a family if the difference in age between the spouses is either three or six years. Therefore people try to avoid that kind of conjunction of ages” (Guchinova, 2006, p. 120). “The astrologer (<i>zurhachi</i>) played a major role in the wedding rituals. He divined the time of each visit and even the colour of the horse on which they were to take away the bride. Without fail he had to be present at the wedding and he, together with the <i>gelüng</i>, was the first to enter the house. The wedding festivities included a battle between members of the bride’s and groom’s families for possession of the bride’s pillow, a custom which Guchinova characterizes as “an ‘echo’ of a transitional period from matrilocal to patrilocal marriage” (2006, p. 124).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“It is well known that Kalmyk children are born with a ‘Mongolian spot’ on the sacrum. A folk explanation of this is that God gave the baby a smack and sent him into the world with the word ‘Go.’ Immediately after the birth of a child in a tent a Buddhist cleric was invited and he performed the ritual of consecrating the cradle (<i>hursel’ arshalh</i>) and named the infant, selecting a name in accordance with the timing of the birth—by the year, month, day and hour and by the position in the sky of twenty-five constellations. The impartation of a name as a magical blessing ensured the bearer happiness and prosperity. The chosen name was supposed to be shouted three times into the ear of the child so that he or she ‘would remember it better’” (Guchinova, 2006, p. 119).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>Astrology also had an important role in Kalmyk funerary practices. When a cremation was performed, it “was conducted on the fourth day after the person’s death, the time of the ceremony being determined by an astrologer” (Guchinova, 2006, p. 127). Those to be buried “were taken out from the yurt and buried in the ground at a place indicated by an astrologer. Small prayer flags were left in the earth on the four sides of the grave. The dead person was never carried out through the door but taken through an opening formed by dismantling trellises of the yurt. This was done so as to deceive evil spirits that might search for the way back” (p. 127). “There existed time-honoured methods for guarding against <i>tachal</i>. One of the methods consisted of the following: out of pastry was modeled a small figurine of a person, in which it was necessary to have hidden finger and toe nails and hair cut from that person. This figurine was then passed over the body of the person who needed to be protected from the effects of the <i>tachal</i>. After this the miniature of the person had to be thrown away at midnight at the junction of three roads” (Guchinova, 2006, p. 162).</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>One of our Georgian astrological texts (the second <i>lunarium</i> included in MS N-503) incorporates the obscure astrological doctrine of the <i>Stella ophiomimeta</i> (“serpent-imitating star”), which appears to be of Mongolian origin. Since Kalmyk mercenaries served in the armies of Georgian rulers and since the <i>Stella ophiomimeta</i> is particularly associated with military astrology, it is possible that Georgian astrologers learned of this concept from the Kalmyks. We shall have more to say about this below.</div>
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<span style="text-decoration: underline;"><b>10. Western Iberian Tradition [draw attention to all parallels]</b></span></div>
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The Basques, with their strange non-Indo-European language, appear to be the last surviving remnant of a cultural complex which spread over much of Europe from <i>refugia</i> in the Iberian peninsula at the end of the Last Glacial Maximum (<i>circa</i> 14,000 – 12,000 B.C.). These peoples are associated with the Upper Paleolithic Solutrean and Magdalenian cultures and with the later Megalithic culture associated with Stonehenge and other prehistoric monuments.</div>
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While it is currently impossible to determine the precise linguistic and cultural affinities of these cultures, the Bay of Biscay appears to have functioned as a glacial <i>refugium</i> from which people and cultural practices spread into other parts of Europe. The Basque language is descended from the ancient Aquitanian language. The ancient Iberian language spoken along the Mediterranean coast of Spain and Provence appears to have been related, along with the neighboring Ligurian language.</div>
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There has been much speculation as to the possible distant connections of Basque to other languages. The Basque language is agglutinative, ergative-absolute, and marked for allocution, features which are entirely alien to Indo-European but are found in the Caucasus. The Vasconic-Kartvelian hypothesis is based on a large number of purported cognates (Basque <i>gau</i> / Georgian <span style="font: 12.0px Helvetica;"><i>ğ</i></span><i>ame</i>, “night”; Basque <i>gizona</i> / Georgian <i>k’aci</i>, “man”; Basque <i>mendi</i> / Georgian <i>mta</i>, “mountain”; Basque <i>urre (urhe</i>) / Georgian <i>okro</i>, “gold”; and the culturally important Basque <i>madari</i> / Georgian <i>msxali</i>, “pear”, to name just a few). At the same time, proponents of the Vasco-Dene hypothesis have associated Basque with the languages of the North Caucasus. This project has resulted in Nikolayev & Starostin’s <i>North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary</i> (1994), which offers dozens of Basque-Caucasian cognates, mostly to the archaic languages of Daghestan. </div>
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Cultural parallels, however, would tend to suggest a closer connection to the Kartvelians than to the peoples of the North Caucasus.</div>
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“It is beyond Iaccetania towards the north that the tribe of the Vasconians is situated, where there is a city Pompelo or, as one might say, Pompeiopolis” (Strabo, <i>Geographica</i> III.vi.10). “As for the Pyrenees themselves, the Iberian side is well wooded with trees of every kind and with evergreens, whereas the Celtic side is bare, although the central portions of it encompass glens that are capable of affording a good livelihood. These glens are occupied mostly by Carretanians of the Iberian stock; and among these people excellent hams are cured, rivaling those of Cantabria, and affording the people no small revenue” (<i>Geographica</i> III.iv.11). There were numerous Iberian tribes, including the Lusitani, “the greatest of the Iberian nations and . . . the nation against which the Romans waged war for the longest time” (<i>Geographica</i> III.iii.3), </div>
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[?]: the Artabrians (a.k.a. Arotrebians), the Callaicans.</div>
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[Celtiberians]: the Astures, the Cantabri, the Carpetanians, the Oretanians, the Vaccaeans,</div>
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[Iberians]: the Iaccetanians, </div>
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[pre-Celtic]: the Vettones, </div>
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“It is the custom of the Cantabrians for the husbands to give dowries to their wives, for the daughters to be left as heirs, and the brothers to be married off by their sisters. The custom involves, in fact, a sort of woman-rule” (III.vi.18). “It is also an Iberian custom habitually to keep at hand a poison which is made by them out of an herb that is nearly like parsley and painless, so as to have it in readiness for any untoward eventuality; and it is an Iberian custom, too, to devote their lives to whomever they attach themselves, even to the point of dying for them. The Celtiberians deemed it an unholy act for a ‘devoted’ person to survive his master” (Valerius Maximus 2.6.11).</div>
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“The Turdetanians are ranked as the wisest of the Iberians; and they make use of an alphabet, and possess records of their ancient history, poems and laws written in verse that are six thousand years old, as they assert. And also the other Iberians use an alphabet, though not letters of one and the same character, for their speech is not one and the same, either” (<i>Geographica</i> III.i.6). </div>
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[Iberians]: Bastetanians (a.k.a. Bastulians), Edetanians,</div>
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[?]:Bardyetans, Exitanians, Indicetans, Plentuisans, Veronians,</div>
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[Celtiberians]: Allotrigans, Arvac(i)ans, Belli, Coniacans, Coniscans, Lusones Pelendones, Plentaurans, Titti, Turdalians, [Celts entered 800/500 B.C.]</div>
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Athenaeus (<i>Deipnosophistae</i> VIII.330) mentions the agricultural wealth of Lusitania, where “the fruits of the country never fail.”</div>
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“Their sick they expose upon the streets, in the same way as the Egyptians did in ancient times, for the sake of getting suggestions from those who have experienced the disease” (III.iii.7).</div>
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AQUITANIANS: Aquitani, Arenosii, Andosini, Autrigones, Bergistani, Caristii, Ceretani, Iacetani, Ilergetes/ae, Varduli(i), Vascones</div>
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CELTIBERIANS: Albiones, Allotriges, Arevaci, Astures, Aurini, Belli, Beroni/es, Bletonesii, Bracari, Cantabri/es, Carpetani, Celtiberi, Celtici, Cempsi, Coelerni, Concani, Consici, Cratistii, Equaesi, Gallaeci, Germani, Grovii, Interamici, Leuni, Limici, Luanqui, Lobetani, Lusones, Mantesani, Morecani, Narbasi, Nemetati, Olcades, Orcenomesci, Oretani, Paesici, Paesuri, Pelendones, Plentauri, Quaquerni, Sefes, Seurbi, Selini, Tamagani, Tamarici, Tapoli, Titti, Turboletae, Turmodigi, Turduli (a.k.a. Bardili), Turduli Veteres, Turodi, Turmodigi, Uraci, Vaccaei, Zoelae</div>
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IBERIANS: Ausetani, Bastetani, Bastuli, Ce/assetani, Contestani, Deitanni, Edetani, Ilercavones, (Ilergetes), Indigetes, Lacetani, Laietani, (Oretani), Sedetani, Sordones</div>
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TARTESSIANS: Cilbiceni, Co/unii/etes (a.k.a. Cynetes), Tartessii, Turdetani</div>
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(PRE-CELTIC): Lusitani, Vettones [Italic?]</div>
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• Traditionally, a candle is twisted and burned in order to harm someone. (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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• Coins generally carry the likeness of any given person. Twisting coins and throwing them into the alms box in a church (or into the fire at home) caused harm to anyone to whom one wanted to cause harm. (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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• Skin disease cured by rubbing it with grains of salt . . . and afterwards throw them into the fire. (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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• In order to cure hernias, an oak tree must be chopped in half on the eve of St. John’s Day. (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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• Headaches can be prevented by drinking water from certain skulls. Children’s teeth can be encouraged to grow by putting the teeth of hedgehogs, wild cats or horses around their necks. (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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• In order to bring on the rain in a time of drought, one sprinkles a picture with water, or puts it in a well. (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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• In order to prevent lightning striking a house, an axe with its blade pointing downwards is placed next to the door. (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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• Baths and showers on the morning of the solstice prevents illness during the rest of the year. Branches of white hawthorn, ash tree, bracken in flower, etc picked on that day and hung in doorways and windows protect the house against lightning. Small fires are lit at crossroads and in front of houses. Jumping over them helps to avoid skin diseases. Throwing a bunch of coins into such fires helps to avoid plagues and diseases in crops. If someone has a hernia, they should walk through an oak which has been split. (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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• Storm clouds and hurricane winds come from inside the earth; In the sky, the stars move around, and when they disappear in the West they enter the reddish sea and continue their journey through the underground world. (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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• The sun and the moon are goddesses, daughters of the Earth to whose bosom they return every day after their journey through the skies. (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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• The day is for men who live on the earthly surface, but during the night it belongs to the spirits and the souls of the dead, for whom the moon gives its light. (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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• Home = sacred place, protected by the fire of the home (symbolizing Mari); it is inhabited by the spirits of ancestors, and visited by them; hence the tradition of continually lighting the home (for the dead) and of leaving offerings. Houses face the sun. They are the family cemetery. Jarleku (altar, now in parish church, formerly in houses); new spouse offers lights and bread to the ancestors on the jarleku. Before Christianity the dead were buried in the house; “until recently children who died without having been christened were buried in the basement of the house. . . . There is a belief that one cannot walk around the house three times in a row (as with a church or a cemetery). The outline of a house is like a cemetery. Equally, the path which links the house with the church and the cemetery is sacred. Along this path, in some crossroads, the mattresses of those who die are burned. (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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• Souls of ancestors manifest as lights or gusts of wind. Souls return to the surface at night, especially to their homes. Certain mountain tops and caves are considered to be channels through which souls travel. These channels lead to homes and to kitchens in older houses. (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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• Wild thistles = symbols of the sun (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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• The etxekoandre was in charge of offering of lights and food and of blessing family members once a year. They represent the household in the jarleku. She was the primary heiress before her brothers. (matriarchal) (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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• Gaveko (spirit of night)</div>
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Inguma (evil spirit who strangles people at night); similar to Aideko (responsible for all illnesses of unknown cause) and Gaizkine (makes roosters’ heads out of the feathers in pillows, causing serious illness to those who sleep on them).</div>
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Mamarro (tiny spirits which help their human owners with their tasks. They live in needle cases—entering them on St. John’s night if they are left open next to a blackberry bush)</div>
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Maide (male night spirit, responsible or building of dolmens)</div>
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Lamia (female spirit with duck’s feet; a mermaid in landlocked seas)</div>
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Basajaun (a spirit who lives in the deepest forest, of which he is the lord. He is tall, has a human form, has long hair on his head and is covered with bodily hair; according to some, one of his feet is rounded. He is the protecting spirit of flocks. The sheep proclaim his presence by simultaneously shaking their bells. The shepherd can then sleep easy, as the wolf will not be attacking them that night.</div>
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Ta/rtalo (evil spirit with only one eye in the centre of his forehead. He lives in caves. Also known as Anxo. He is the cruelest and most terrifying of them all. He tears apart his prisoners, then roasts and eats them.</div>
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Lur (mother of the sun and moon)</div>
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Mari (head of the other spirits, lives inside the earth, comes to surface through caves & chasms. Roman coins have been found in caves and chasms, which points to the practice of throwing them there to obtain the protection of the cave spirits (especially Mari); later the ram was the best gift. Responsible for hail & lightning.</div>
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Akerbelitz (male black goat, protector of livestock and head of sorcerers [azti]. The custom is to keep one male black goat in the stable, to ensure the good health of all the animals he protects).</div>
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Equzki / Ekhi (sun; drives away the night spirits; that is why the eguzkilore is placed by the front door to the house, and why houses face east, as do tombs and dolmens)</div>
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Ilargi / Ilazki (moon, the light of the dead; Fridays dedicated to her [ostziral]; in order to free someone form a spell, the belongings of a person who has been bewitched must be burned on a Friday, by moonlight, at a crossroads.</div>
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Ortzi (the skies, deified; Thursday = ortzeguna; oinaztarri / tzimista /txiamstarn = hail, refers to the belief that lightning was a flint stone [txiamstarn] thrown from the skies. It is because axes used to be made of flint that they were placed, blade down to prevent lightning bolts. An axe from the bronze age was ound in the cave of Zabalitz, on the ground, with its balde pointing towards the skies).</div>
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Erio (separates souls from bodies upon death). (Goni, n.d.)</div>
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There are a number of striking parallels between the religious, folkloric, and cosmological traditions of the Kartvelians and those of the Basques (“Western Iberians”).<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The principal gods in the Basque pantheon were Mari and her consoft Sugaar (a.k.a. Sugoi, Maju). [MATR] Mari was a powerful goddess associated with the weather. She is often portrayed as a woman dressed in red, with a full moon behind her head. She may also appear as a woman of fire, as a tree-woman, or as a thunderbolt, and is identified with red animals and with the black he-goat. “Mari is served by a court of <i>sorginak</i> (witches), and is <i>said to feed on the negation and affirmation</i> (that is on falsehood)” (WIKIPEDIA). Mari is said to have had seven brothers and to have been transformed into a witch for her disobedience. [the # 8, matriarchy] </div>
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Mari’s consort Sugaar, by contrast, is a shadowy figure associated with storms and thunder. “He is normally imagined as a dragon or serpent. Unlike his female consort, Mari, there are very few remaining legends about Sugaar. The basic purpose of his existence is to periodically join with Mari in the mountains to generate the storms. . . . The name Suga(a)r is derived from <i>suge</i> (serpent) and <i>–ar</i> (male), thus “male serpent.” (WIKIPEDIA). Sugaar is sometimes seen “crossing the sky in the form of [a] fire-sickle, what is considered presage of storms” (WIKIPEDIA). He is also said to punish children who disobey their parents. </div>
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Mari was believed to dwell in a cave on the mountain of Anboto, while Sugaar inhabited the caves of Amunda and Atarreta. The two were said to meet on Fridays (the day of the the Basque <i>akelarre</i>, or witches’ sabbat), when Mari conceived the storms of the week to come. It was believed that when Mari and Sugaar travelled together there would be hail, but that “if she stays in her cave and if on the day of the Holy Cross appropriate spells are cast, hail can be prevented” (WIKIPEDIA). Mari’s departures from her cave were accompanied by storms or droughts; “which cave she lived in at different times would determine dry or wet weather: wet when she was in Anboto, dry when she was elsewhere” (WIKIPEDIA; <b>Georgian counterpart</b>). </div>
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The ancient Aquitanians are noted for establishing sacred precincts known as <i>saroeak</i>. These are octagonal arrangements of eight stones, accurately aligned with the cardinal and intercardinal directions and always delineating an area of similar size (about 320 meters in diameter). The earliest <i>saroeak</i> have been dated to <i>circa</i> 200 A.D., and appear to have been used as meeting-places and centers for religious rituals. Their precise celestial orientation and the fact that “the earliest <i>saroeak</i> respected even earlier megalithic tombs and dolmens, in that they never enclosed them, although such monuments are sometimes found just outside a <i>saroe </i>boundary” (Ruggles, 2005, p. 374) may well suggest that they were part of an unbroken tradition going back to Neolithic times.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>[Roncesvalles, cf. Andalal]</div>
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The ancient Basque cemetery of Argineta in Elorrio, Vizcaya has been dated to 883 A.D., and features “discoidal tombstones (sun-signs?) with no trace of a cross, and is thought to represent pre-Christian burial practices” (Trask, 1997, p. 13). Even subsequent to their conversion to Christianity, the essentially pagan mentality of the Basques may be seen in the fact that “the inhabitants of Vizcaya would not accept a priest amongst them unless he had a concumbine, since they considered that no male is free of carnal desires and feared that if the priests lived alone they would direct their attentions to the womenfolk of the parish” (Baroja, 1970, p. 221).</div>
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The Basque region was notorious for the practice of witchcraft, apparently a survival of their pre-Christian religious system. Supposedly a witch could be identified by a “sign” in her left eye resembling a frog’s foot. Basque witches were accused of such grotesque practices as making ointments out of toads’ blood and babies’ hearts. Unlike other parts of Europe, where accusations of witchcraft were usually without any basis in fact, witchcraft actually flourished in the Basque country. The cult was highly organized, with five grades of initiation. A witch was traditionally initiated by her grandmother on her deathbed, often by the transmission of an accursed pincushion. Basque witches participated in necrophagy, drug-use, vampirism, the murder of their relatives, and the deliberate inversion of Christian sacraments. The stress induced by these activities commonly resulted in mental disintegration (Baroja, 1970). There are credible reports of gatherings of more than 1000 witches on some occasions, and according to Pierre de Lancre, who conducted a massive witch-hunt in 1609, resulting in dozens of executions, “the priests and curés of Labourd and the neighbouring districts of Navarre are for the most part sorcerers” (Baroja, 1970, p. 222). In the course of the 17<sup>th</sup> century, more than 7,000 cases of Basque witchcraft were tried by the Inquisition.</div>
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The ancient Aquitanians (ancestors of the Basques) were well known in classical antiquity for their practice of divination from the flights of birds (augury), and for their pagan cult dedicated to the worship of the dead. One possible etymology of the Basque word for the moon (<i>ilargi</i>) is “light of the dead” (Knörr, 2000). </div>
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The Sun and Moon were of the greatest importance in traditional Basque culture. The Basque name for the Sun is <i>eguzki</i> or <i>eki</i>, literally “day-thing.” This root is seen in numerous cosmological terms: the Basque word for the month of June is <i>ekain</i> (“sun up high”), an apparent reference to the summer solstice. The word for Christmas is <i>eguberri</i> (“new day,” probably a reference to the winter solstice and the beginning of a new year). The east is known as <i>ekialde</i> (“sun-part”). One of the Basque words for a star is <i>eguzki-begi</i> (lit. “sun’s eye”). “Some verses have also been found in which people address the sun as a female object, by calling it ‘grandmother.’ . . . Basque has traditionally considered the sun a feminine object” (Knörr, 2000, p. 410). </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>“The moon is also feminine and just like the sun is greeted by people” (p. 410). The Moon is called <i>ilargi </i>(“month-light”), and in some districts <i>goiko</i> (“the one above”); this and and the others may represent word taboos, avoiding the specific names of the luminaries. Associated terms include <i>hil / il</i> (“month” or “moon,” possibly connected with <i>herio</i>, “death”), <i>ilberri</i> (“new moon”); <i>ilgora</i> (“first quarter,” lit. “moon above”), <i>ilbete</i> (“full moon,” also called <i>ilzar</i>, “old moon”), and <i>ilbe(he)ra</i> (“last quarter,” lit. “moon below”). Sunday is <i>igande</i> (“moon rising”) and Monday is <i>ilen</i> (“moon-day”). </div>
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Strabo notes that “the Celtiberians and their neighbours on the north [i.e. the Aquitanians] offer sacrifice to a nameless god at the seasons of the full moon, by night, in front of the doors of their houses, and whole households dance in chorus and keep it up all night” (<i>Geographica</i> III.iv.16). </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Basques originally had a greatly simplified concept of time. There were just two seasons, <i>uda</i> (“summer”) and <i>negu</i> (“winter,” cf. <i>egu</i>, “day”), comparable to day and night; and a three-day week: <i>astelehen</i> (“first”), <i>astearte</i> (“middle”), and <i>asteazken</i> (“last”). </div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>The Basque word for a star is <i>izar</i>. A shooting star is <i>izar ozar</i> (lit. “daring star”). A planet is <i>izarbel</i> (lit. “black star”), in contrast to the planet Venus, which is <i>Artizarra</i> (lit. “light star”). There are many names for constellations and fixed stars: Ursa Major has many names: <i>bost izarrak</i> (“five stars”), <i>sei izarrak</i> (“six stars”), <i>zazpi ohoinak</i> (“seven thieves”), <i>oilo txitoak</i> (“the hen and her chicks”), <i>artzain</i> (“the shepherd”), <i>artzain makoarekin</i> (“the shepherd with his crook”), <i>itzain</i> (“the ox-herd”), and <i>itohoin</i> (“the ox-thief”). Orion is called <i>soldadua</i> (“the soldier”) and <i>hiru lapurrak</i> (“the three thieves”). Cassiopeia is <i>Mariaren baratzea</i> (“Mary’s garden”). Antares is <i>izar gorria</i> (“red star”) or <i>izar odoltsua</i> (“bloody star”). Sirius is <i>begi distira</i> (“the shining eye”). The Pleiades are known as <i>oiloa koloka txitekin</i> (“the broody hen with her chicks”), <i>oiloa txitoekin</i> (“the hen with her chicks”), and <i>izar molkoak </i>(“groups of stars”). The Milky Way has several names: <i>Esnebidea</i> (“milky path”), <i>Erromako bidea</i> (“the path to Rome”), <i>Erromesen bidea</i> (“pilgrim’s path”), <i>Jakobeko bidea</i> or <i>Santiago bidea</i> (“the path of St. James”), and <i>Josafaten bidea</i> (“the path of Josafat”). The Basques are highly unusual in attaching importance to the constellation of Ursa Minor, which marks the celestial north pole but was ignored by most cultures.<sup> </sup> Basque terms for Ursa Minor include <i>zazpi izarrak</i> (“seven stars”), <i>zazpi ohoinak</i> (“seven thieves”), and <i>zazpi ahuntzak</i> (“seven goats”). Note how these terms all incorporate the number seven, while the designations for Ursa Major vary from five to seven.</div>
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<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span>As we have just noted in our discussion of Mari and Sugaar, the Basques attached much importance to meteorological phenomena: thunder is called <i>ortzantz</i> (“heavenly thunder”) and <i>oztots / ostots</i> (“sky’s noise”). Lightning is <i>orzpin</i> (“tongue from the sky”) as well as the inexplicable <i>ozminarri</i> (“stone of the tongue from the sky”). Rainbows are especially significant, and have many names: <i>ortzadar / ostadar</i> (“sky horn / arch”), <i>euriadar</i> (“rain horn”), <i>Jainkoaren gerrikoa</i> (“sash of God”), <i>Santiagora bide</i> (“road to Santiago”), <i>Santiago zubi</i> (“bridge of Santiago”), <i>Erromako zubia</i> (“bridge to Rome”), <i>zeruko zubi</i> (“bridge to heaven”), <i>San Migelen zubia</i> (“St. Michael’s bridge”), <i>San Nikolasen zubi</i> (“St Nicholas’ bridge”), <i>Frantziako zubi</i> (“bridge of France”), and <i>itsas adar</i> (“sea horn,” probably arising from the belief that rainbows drink sea-water). There is even a special (and inexplicable) term for a double rainbow: <i>azerien boda</i> (“wedding of foxes”). (Knörr, 2000). “There is also a popular belief amongst Basque people that if you walk underneath a rainbow you will change sex” (Knörr, 2000, pp. 411-412). </div>
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Mama / deda discussion (as summarized by Berman 2009, “Caucasus”) + mze / mtvare, horns of bull = Moon</div>
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Amza / mze; mtvare / mtovare + mzistvali / avi tvali; according to Klimov, the Proto-Kartvelian terms were MZE and TUTE (from which comes tve); he also notes that PK distinguished only two seasons (summer & winter, p. 122); in both instances there are Basque parallels: Knorr 410: “It is interesting to see how in many villages there is a difference between <i>eguzki </i>“sunlight” and <i>eguzki-begi</i> “star” or quite literally “sun’s eye”.”Knorr 408: “We cannot avoid the impression, also mentioned by other researchers, that in the traditional Basque way of thinking there were only two seasons: <i>uda</i> “summer” and <i>negu</i> “winter”.” </div>
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+ Knorr 410: “Another [word for the moon], from the Roncal area, is <i>goiko</i>, which quite literally means “the one above”.” Knorr 411: “Uhlenbeck put forward the idea that there was a certain “word taboo” attached to the word for “moon” and the one for “sun”, meaning that both had their own specific names, which should be avoided. Caro Baroja supported this idea. This may even explain the case of the word from Roncal, <i>goiko</i> (meaning “the one above”) that we mentioned previously.”</div>
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<br /></div>Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-5080060739964383712012-01-28T21:28:00.001-08:002012-01-28T21:28:58.095-08:00Late Prehistoric Kartvelian Contacts with the Altai Region (2011)<!--StartFragment-->
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</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Late Prehistoric Kartvelian
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Timothy P. Grove, Biola University<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>To
be published in a volume of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Proceedings </i>of
the <o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>International
Conference Tao-Klarjeti </b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Tbilisi:
Artanuji Publishers, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">in press</i>)<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>Personal
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Timothy P. Grove, Biola University, La Mirada, California,
U.S.A.</div>
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Mr. Grove is an Assistant Professor, and has taught English
at Biola’s English Language Studies Program and Talbot School of Theology since
1997. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">He has also taught English in
Myanmar and has conducted graduate research in the Republic of Georgia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is currently pursuing a Ph.D in
Intercultural Studies under Dr. Douglas Hayward.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His research interests include Neo-Latin literature, Italian
literature, the Western astrological tradition, and the history, literature,
culture, and folklore of Georgia and the Caucasus (17<sup>th</sup>-18<sup>th</sup>
centuries).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Abstract:<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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The <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Tao-Klarjeti region is thought to be one of the most ancient
habitations of the Kartvelian peoples, and the name <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tao</i> is probably connected to the ancient ethnic designations <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Diauehi</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Taochoi</i> used by the Assyrians and Greeks, respectively.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Recent
discoveries may enable us to extend our knowledge of the early Kartvelians
still further back, into prehistoric times. In the course of my reading over
the years, I have come across several lines of evidence suggestive of extremely
ancient contacts between the South Caucasus (including Tao-Klarjeti) and
regions far to the east, including the Alborz Mountains of Iran and the Altai
region of central Asia. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">I. Nasidze <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i> (2006)
present evidence suggesting that the inhabitants of Gilan and Mazanderan (in
the Alborz mountains along the south coast of the Caspian Sea) formerly spoke a
Kartvelian language and are genetically related to the Kartvelian peoples.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">J. Nichols (1992, 1997) also presents linguistic arguments connecting
the Kartvelian languages to the region south-east of the Caspian Sea and
possibly even further east, to “the vicinity of the eastern steppe or the north
Mongolian region.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">T. Sulimirski (1970) mentions the discovery in the Altai mountains of
“a Caucasian bronze helmet of the sixth century BC,” and certain passages in
the writings of Herodotus and Strabo indicate that the Altai region was an
important source of gold and other metals and that trade-routes to the west
were already well established in ancient times. Greek writers also record
certain cultural practices common to both the Alborz mountains and the Altai
region.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Articles by M.V. Derenko <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i>
(2001) and by M. Reidla <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i> (2003)
discuss the presence of mtDNA haplogroup X in both the South Caucasus and the
Altai region. They associate the diffusion of this haplogroup with a population
dispersal around the time of the Last Glacial Maximum. Reidla <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i> connect the presence of
haplogroup X2 in the Altai region to a relatively recent migration from the
South Caucasus.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Both the Caucasus and the Altai region were covered by local ice-sheets
during the Last Glacial Maximum, so the evidence for late prehistoric
connections between the two regions may be a relic of extremely ancient west-east
migrations along an ice-free corridor. According to I. Skrede <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i> (2005) and A. Murakami <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i> (2006), near-identical strains of
a number of plant species, including <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Dryas
octopetala</i> (mountain avens) and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Humulus
lupulus</i> (wild hops) appear to have survived in these two widely separated
glacial <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">refugia</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Late Prehistoric
Kartvelian Contacts with the Altai Region<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Timothy P. Grove,
Biola University, La Mirada, California<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Introduction<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The Greeks and Romans designated two nations as “Iberia”—one in Spain
and one in the Caucasus. Probably this is no coincidence. The Georgian people
themselves have always recognized a special relationship between the “two
Iberias”: The French traveler Jean Chardin, writing in the 17<sup>th</sup>
century, reports that the Georgian king asked him to convey his greetings to
the king of Spain, “referring to him as ‘my relative.’ Then the Georgian King
drank to the health of the King of Spain with a special goblet set with
precious stones and made Chardin and the Capuchin monks present at the
reception drink the toast.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn1" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[1]</span></span></a>
</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">According to Strabo, the Turdetanians [Tartessians] (a branch of the
western Iberians) “are ranked as the wisest of the Iberians; and they make use
of an alphabet, and possess records of their ancient history, poems, and laws
written in verse that are six thousand years old, as they assert.” (<i>Geographia</i>
III.i.6). This intriguing statement raises the possibility that the mysterious
Voynich Manuscript (which appears to have originated in Spain) may in fact
preserve an ancient Iberian text.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Numerous arguments have been presented linking the Kartvelians to such
ancient peoples as the Trojans, the Pelasgians, the Etruscans, the Minoans, the
Aquitanians (Basques), and even the Picts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">These ideas are well known, if somewhat controversial. However, there
is also evidence of prehistoric Kartvelian connections far to the East. In the
course of my reading over the years, I have come across several lines of
evidence suggestive of extremely ancient contacts between the South Caucasus
and regions far to the east, including the Alborz Mountains of Iran and the
Altai region of central Asia. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The evidence for such connections must be considered in the broader
context of the Prehistoric and Early Historic connections between the Caucasus
and Central Asia. These include the Scythian routes connecting the North
Caucasus to the Altai region (as described by Herodotus); the association of
the ancient Hurrians with the Caucasus, with the Alborz mountains of northern
Iran, and with Central Asia; and miscellaneous prehistoric connections between
the Caucasus and Altai regions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The Scythians<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The Scythians, a branch of East Iranians, occupied the Eurasian steppe,
an “immense plain which . . . forms a single geographical unit of natural
grassland.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn2" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[2]</span></span></a>
The nomadic Scythians were skilled horsemen, accustomed to traveling great
distances, and the Scythian domains extended from the Dniester to the Altai
mountains, including much of the North Caucasus (where their descendants, the
Ossetians, still dwell).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The oldest evidence of Scythian habitation is associated with burials
in the Altai region at Pazyryk (excavated 1929) and at the Arzhan-2 site near
Kyzyl (Tuva) (excavated 1998-2003). Archaeological evidence suggests that the
distinctive Scythian culture arose in that area <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i> 1000 B.C. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The western branch of the Scythians (including the “Royal Scythians” of
Herodotus, among others) appears to have arisen somewhat later (7<sup>th</sup>
century B.C.) in the Ukraine. Although separated by 4000 km, it appears that
there were extensive contacts between the eastern and western Scythians.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The Altai mountains were an important source of gold. “There are a few
traces of western penetration in the Altai area. A Caucasian bronze helmet of
the sixth century B.C. was found in the mountains . . . It is difficult to
ascertain what goods were bartered for gold, but the trade was obviously
profitable to the western merchants.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn3" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[3]</span></span></a>
E. D. Phillips notes that “A hoard of Pontic coins minted around 400 B.C. was
discovered in the north-western Tien Shan.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn4" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[4]</span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Herodotus (<i>Persian Wars </i>iv.24) states that “The Scythians who
make this journey communicate with the inhabitants by means of seven
interpreters and seven languages.” Herodotus describes the terminus of this
great trade route: “their country . . . is all a smooth plain . . .beyond you
enter on a region which is rugged and stony. Passing over a great extent of
this rough country, you come to a people dwelling at the foot of lofty
mountains, who are said to be all—both men and women—bald from their birth, to
have flat noses, and very long chins. These people speak a language of their
own, but the dress which they wear is the same as the Scythians. No one harms these
people, for they are looked upon as sacred—they do not even possess any warlike
weapons. When their neighbors fall out, they make up the quarrel; and when one
flies to them for refuge, he is safe from all hurt. They are called the
Argippaei.” (<i>Persian Wars </i>iv.23)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Based on the account of Herodotus, the Argippaei are most plausibly
associated with the Altai region, an extremely important ancient source of gold
and other metals. Indeed, the “sacred” Argippaei may have been early
practitioners of metallurgy and the custodians of metallurgical secrets: “It
has been suggested that the sacred immunity of the Argippaei may be compared
with that enjoyed by tribes of African blacksmiths: the Argippaei may have been
skilled miners, foundrymen and, above all, goldsmiths who worked for all the
neighbouring peoples.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn5" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[5]</span></span></a>
Based on Herodotus’ physical description of them, it appears that the Argippaei
were a people of Mongoloid or Uralian race.</span><span style="color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 24.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "MS Pゴシック"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Pゴシック";"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">To the east of the Argippaei lived the Issedones (see below), and
according to Herodotus, “The regions beyond are known only from the accounts of
the Issedones, by whom the stories are told of the one-eyed race of men and the
gold-guarding griffins. These stories are received by the Scythians from the
Issedones, and by them passed on to us Greeks; whence it arises that we give
the one-eyed race the Scythian name of Arismaspi, <i>arima</i> being the
Scythic word for “one,” and <i>spu</i> for “eye.” (<i>Persian Wars</i>, iv.27) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The Subarians and
Hurrians<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Going
back still further in time, we find that the Hurrians (Subarians) also had
connections to Central Asia. The Subarians were the pre-Sumerian inhabitants of
Mesopotamia, and are probably to be associated with the neolithic Halaf culture
of northern Mesopotamia (<i>circa</i> 6100-5400 B.C.). The Subarians are noted
for their advances in metallurgy; indeed, the Sumerians borrowed their copper
terminology from the Subarian language, along with many place-names. The
Subarians may also be linked to the later Kura-Araxes culture of the Caucasus (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i> 3400-2300 B.C.), which is noted
for “a precocious metallurgical development which strongly influenced
surrounding regions."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn6" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[6]</span></span></a>
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">This same ethnic group, better known as the Hurrians, later re-expanded
into the Near East from their center in the Khabur valley (<i>circa</i> 2500
B.C.), forming numerous small states and kingdoms throughout Syria, northern
Mesopotamia, and Palestine. Some scholars connect the Hurrian language (along
with its descendant, Urartian) to the Northeast Caucasian linguistic phylum
(where it is considered to be most closely related to the Chechen, Ingush, and
Lezgian languages);<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn7" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[7]</span></span></a> others
connect it to the Kartvelian phylum.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn8" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[8]</span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Soviet archaeologist Sergei Pavlovich Tolstov (1907-1976) connected the
ethnonym <i>Ḫu-ur-ri </i>(Hurrian) to <i>Khwarezm</i> (Central Asia).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn9" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[9]</span></span></a>
Soviet archaeologists eventually unearthed the remains of an important Bronze
Age civilization known as the Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC,
Oxus Civilization), which flourished in the region <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i> 2200-1700 B.C.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The Hurrians were skilled horsemen (and may have introduced horses into
the Near East circa 2000 B.C.); a famous Hittite text on horsemanship was
written by one Kikkuli, a Hurrian. These facts tend to support Tolstov’s
theory.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The most important Hurrian state was the empire of Mitanni, which
dominated the Near East <i>circa</i> 1450 - 1350 B.C. The Mitanni had an
Indo-Aryan ruling class, as demonstrated by the names of their kings and
deities—this clearly associates them with Central Asia, lending further support
to Tolstov’s theory.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">It appears that the Hurrians made use of a long-established trade-route
which brought lapis lazuli into the Near East from its sources in Badakhshan
(northern Afghanistan) and beyond, in the Pamir Mountains and at the south end
of Lake Baikal.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn10" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[10]</span></span></a> This route
was in use by 4000 B.C., and passed through Khorasan and along the south coast
of the Caspian Sea before turning inland through the Zagros Mountains into
Mesopotamia.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn11" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[11]</span></span></a> The
Burushaski language, a linguistic isolate, still survives in the Badakhshan
region and is likely the remnant of an extinct phylum (“Burushic”) which was
formerly widespread in central Asia. It is very interesting to note that John
D. Bengtson has argued for a genetic connection between Burushaski and the
North Caucasian languages.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn12" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[12]</span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">It appears from this that there were at least two different ancient
routes across Central Asia—a northern route (passing north of the Caspian and
Aral Seas), used by the Scythians; and a southern route (passing south of the
Caspian Sea), used by the Hurrians. The later “Silk Road” incorporated both of
these ancient routes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Prehistoric
Connections between the Caucasus and Altai regions<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Going still further back, to prehistoric times, we find several lines
of evidence which specifically connect the Caucasus (and the Caspian littoral)
to the Altai region.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">1. Mortuary
Cannibalism<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The first of these is the cultural phenomenon of mortuary cannibalism.
In his description of the Derb</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ī</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ces,
an ancient people inhabiting parts of Turkmenistan and the southeast coast of
the Caspian Sea, Strabo includes the following statement:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Derb</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ī</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ces worship Mother Earth; and they do not
sacrifice, or eat, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">anything that is female; and when men become over seventy years of age <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">they are slaughtered, and their flesh is consumed by their nearest of
kin; but <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">their old women are strangled and then buried.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the men who die <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">under seventy years of age are not eaten, but only buried. . . .” (<i>Geographia</i><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>xi.11.8)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>St.
Jerome makes a similar statement:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Derb</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ī</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ces think those persons most unhappy who die
of sickness, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">and when parents, kindred, or friends reach old age, they are murdered
and devoured. It is thought better that they should be eaten by the people <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">themselves than by the worms. (Hieronymus, <i>Contra Justinianum</i>
II.xx)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>According
to Herodotus, the Issedones lived just to the east of the Argippaei, apparently
somewhere in the Altai region. Herodotus states that the Issedones<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">are said to have the following customs: when a man's father dies, all
the <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">near relatives bring sheep to the house; which are sacrificed, and
their flesh <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">cut in pieces, while at the same time the dead body undergoes the like <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">treatment. The two sorts of flesh are afterwards mixed together, and
the <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">whole is served up at a banquet. His skull however they strip of the
flesh <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">and clean it out and then gild it over, and after that they deal with
it as a <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">sacred thing and perform for the dead man great sacrifices every year. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">(<i>Persian Wars</i>, iv.26)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Mortuary
cannibalism is a highly unusual cultural practice, documented among only a few
of the world’s ethnic groups. These include the Fore people of New Guinea and
the Yanomamö, Wari’, and Matsés peoples of the Amazon basin. In ancient times,
however, this practice was particularly associated with Central Asia. Herodotus
notes its existence there among the Massagetae and Anthropophagi
(“man-eaters”), as well as the Issedones. Mortuary cannibalism was still
practiced in Tibet as recently as the 13<sup>th</sup> century (as reported by
Willielmus de Rubruquis in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Itinerarium</i>,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i> 1260).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Since
the territories of the Derb</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ī</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ces
and the Issedones were connected by the ancient “southern route” across Central
Asia, the existence of mortuary cannibalism among these two widely-separated
peoples may suggest an ancient cultural connection.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">2. Ancient
Metallurgy<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A
second line of evidence which connects the Caucasus to the Altai region may be
seen in the development of ancient metallurgy. Bronze Age metallurgists were
dependent on two main sources of tin—one in the west (western Spain, Portugal,
Brittany, and especially Cornwall); the other in Central Asia (Karnab
[Uzbekistan], Mushiston [Tajikistan],<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn13" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[13]</span></span></a>
and the Altai region, (which was also rich in gold, silver, copper, lead, zinc,
and iron).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn14" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[14]</span></span></a>
It appears that the western sources were not commercially developed until <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i> 1900 B.C; the Central Asian
sources, however, were developed much earlier (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i> 3500 B.C.). Ancient workings of tin in the Altai region have
been found to contain bronze tools.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn15" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[15]</span></span></a>
Thus, it appears that Central Asia may have been the only significant source of
tin prior to 1900 B.C., when the Phoenicians began importing tin from the far
West. According to Christopher P. Thornton, “Pernicka <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i> (2003: 165-7) suggest an importation of tin metal from
Central Asia based upon lead isotope data and the excavation of jade and
nephrite axes at Troy.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn16" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[16]</span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It
is also highly interesting that all three of the ancient tin-mining regions
just mentioned (Karnab, Mushiston, and the Altai Mountains) are located along
the same ancient trade-route, the “Southern Route” mentioned above. It appears
from this that long before silk became commercially important, there existed an
extremely ancient “Tin Road” linking the Near East to sources of tin in Central
Asia. It is also significant that the Caucasus, Alborz, and Altai regions were
connected by this Tin Road and are all associated with important advances and
innovations in metallurgical science.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It
is possible that the metal-workers of the North Caucasus were trading with the
Altai region by way of the “Northern Route” across the Eurasian steppe, while
those of the South Caucasus were obtaining tin from the Altai Mountains by way
of the “Southern Route.” If these two trade-routes were being supplied by two
different networks of mines, that might explain why bronze associated with the
Bedeni culture of eastern Georgia (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i>
2200 B.C.) contains significant traces of zinc, while bronze from the North
Caucasus does not.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn17" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[17]</span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">3. Presence of
Early Man<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A
further line of evidence connecting the Caucasus to the Altai Mountains is the
presence of early man in both regions. The hominid remains discovered in 1991
by David Lordkipanidze at Dmanisi, Kvemo Kartli (1.8 million years old) are the
oldest hominid fossils found outside of Africa. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Neanderthal remains have been found at Ortvale Klde (1973) and
elsewhere in the Caucasus (36,000-50,000 years old).</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "MS Pゴシック"; mso-bidi-font-size: 24.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Pゴシック";"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "MS Pゴシック"; mso-bidi-font-size: 24.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Pゴシック";">The</span><span style="color: white; font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-family: "MS Pゴシック"; mso-bidi-font-size: 24.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Pゴシック";"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Neanderthal range is now known to have
extended as far as the Altai region,<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn18" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[18]</span></span></a>
and remains of a new hominid species were discovered at Denisov cave in the
Altai region in 2008.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn19" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[19]</span></span></a>
It appears that all three species (Homo sapiens, Neanderthal, and the Altai
hominid) co</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">ë</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">xisted in the Altai region 30,000-48,000 years ago.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">4. Glacial <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Refugia</i><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Still
another, closely-related line of evidence is found in the fact that both the
Caucasus and the Altai Mountains served as places of refugial isolation for
various plant species during the Last Glacial Maximum (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i> 20,000 years ago). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">One example of this is the survival of identical strains of <i>Dryas
octopetala</i> (mountain avens) in both regions: “</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">The two single populations analysed from the
Caucasus and Altai Mountains were most closely related to the Eastern lineage
but were strongly divergent from the remaining eastern populations, suggesting
survival in separate refugia at least during the last glaciation.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn20" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[20]</span></span></a></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">A further example is <i>Humulus lupulus</i> (wild hops). The haplotypes
exhibited by lineages of this species from the Caucasus and Altai regions were
found to differ by a single nucleotide.</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"> Moreover, “genetic differentiation of
European hops was found only in the Caucasus region. A phylogenetic tree based
on microsatellite DNA also showed the Caucasus hops to be deeply divergent from
a large cluster of European hops. This differentiation could have arisen if the
Caucasus region was genetically isolated from other European populations,
perhaps as one of the refugia located in southern Europe area during glacial
periods.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn21" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[21]</span></span></a></span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The survival of these botanical species suggests that these
widely-separated regions may have served as <i>refugia</i> for human
populations as well. The concurrent survival of three hominid species in the
Altai region also supports this hypothesis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">5. Reports of
Алмасты<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Another very interesting phenomenon linking the Caucasus and Altai
regions is seen in the frequent reports of aлмасты (“wild men”), who are said
to inhabit unfrequented mountain areas. References to these wild men are
extremely frequent in the folklore of the Chechens and Ingush of the Northeast
Caucasus.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn22" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[22]</span></span></a>
Such reports are also common among the peoples of the Northwest Caucasus, among
whom “It would seem that terms for such a creature are widespread throughout
the language family. West Circassian, Abkhaz, Abaza, and Ubykh each have one
term. East Circassian has two.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn23" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[23]</span></span></a>
John Colarusso relates that <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">There were Circassian men in the various communities in Turkey who had <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">gained great esteem for having gone into the mountains and traded with<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">this wild man when they were still young men back in the Caucasus. It <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">seems that at least two men were supposed to have gone as a team to a <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">clearing on a forested mountain slope. This area was known to be one of
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">several haunts of the wild man. The men would camp for some time with <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">their trading goods on the ground in the clearing. After a day or two
one of <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">the wild men would appear at the edge of the clearing . . . The men
would <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">open up their packages of goods and spread them on the ground. The wild
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">man would then come forward with something, and simple bartering would <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">take place. Despite several efforts, I was unable to ascertain what the
items involved on either side might have been except that the human items were <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">“trinkets” and the wild man’s contributions were “vegetables and
things.” Nothing of any great economic importance, at least to the Circassians,
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">was supposed to have been involved. The wild man was supposed to have
engaged in active dickering, making extensive use of gesture and trying <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">very inadequately to use a crude, broken Circassian. The dangerous part
of <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">this expedition was supposed to occur when the trading was finished and
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">the men made their way back through the forest. The wild man trader was
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">always presumed to be the head of a small band, the other members of <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">which remained concealed in the underbrush while they watched the <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">trading. The band would then stalk the men through the brush and would <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">often attempt to waylay them in order to get any remaining trinkets or <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">artifacts as well as to take back whatever items they had originally
given <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">the men. The bravery displayed by the men in risking this kind of
ambush <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">was the basis for the esteem which such trading expeditions conferred
upon <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">the participants. . . It was thought that a wild man could kill a man
in such <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">an attack, but that the wild man was not a carnivore or a particularly
fierce <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">or savage creature. On the contrary, the wild man was held to be quite <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">meek and furtive but inordinately fond of shiny artifacts and willing
to use <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">his cunning and strength to get them. For this reason, efforts were
made to <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">avoid him, and he was considered dangerous.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn24" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[24]</span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A
similar creature has been reported in the Altai Mountains (indeed the word </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">aлмас is of Mongolian origin). A famous
illustration of this creature appears in a trilingual medical manuscript
(Tibetan, Mongolian, Chinese) dated to the 18<sup>th</sup> (or 19<sup>th</sup>)
century. “The book contains thousands of illustrations of various classes of
animals (reptiles, mammals and amphibia), but not one single mythological
animal such as are known from similar medieval European books. All the
creatures are living and observable today.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn25" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[25]</span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It
is very interesting that these reports (associated with the Caucasus, Pamir,
and Altai regions) correspond fairly well to the known range of the
Neanderthal. If there is any truth at all to these stories, the most plausible
explanation may be that small numbers of Neanderthal still survive in isolated
mountain regions. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Both
the Caucasus and the Altai regions were covered by local ice-sheets during the
Last Glacial Maximum, so the evidence of late prehistoric connections between
the two regions may be a relic of extremely ancient West-East migrations along
an ice-free corridor. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Kartvelian
connections to the Altai region (<i>circa</i> 4000 B.C.)<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Now
that the broader context has been established, it is possible to consider the
specific evidence presented in a number of sources which suggests some sort of
connection between the Kartvelians and the Altai region during Late Prehistoric
times (<i>circa</i> 4000 B.C. and earlier). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">My intention here is simply to present this information in the hope of
stimulating further discussion and study of this question.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">1. Kartvelian
Linguistic and Genetic Associations with the Alborz Mountains <o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Alborz Mountains along the south coast of the Caspian Sea are a region of great
cultural and historical importance. The languages of this region include Gilaki
and Mazandarani, as well as the Tatic group (including Talysh). These
North-Western Iranian languages are highly divergent from others in that
family: “The Gīlakī vowel system sounds radically different from other Iranian
languages and seems quite elusive.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn26" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[26]</span></span></a>
In another article, Donald Stilo states that<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“. . . the border between [the Gilaki and Talyshi] languages
is clear and abrupt. There are not transitional dialects between them and they
are for the most part not mutually intelligible. They coincide, however, in the
greater part of their phonological systems, if not all, and share many
grammatical patterns, some of which are uniquely characteristic to them and do
not exist in Iran outside of this geographic area. One possible explanation is
that these common unique features are the result of a mutual influence from a
previous substratum language.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn27" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[27]</span></span></a>
Later in the same article, Stilo identifies this substratum language as
“pre-Indo-European.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn28" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[28]</span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>According
to Ivan Nasidze <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i> (2006), <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">It has been suggested that their ancestors came from the Caucasus
region, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">perhaps displacing an earlier group in the South Caspian. Linguistic <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">evidence supports this scenario, in that the Gilaki and Mazandarani <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">languages (but not other Iranian languages) share certain typological <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">features with Caucasian languages. . . Based on mtDNA HV1 sequences, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">the Gilaki and Mazandarani most closely resemble their geographic and <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">linguistic neighbors, namely other Iranian groups. However, their Y <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">chromosome types most closely resemble those found in groups from the <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">South Caucasus. A scenario that explains these differences is a south <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Caucasian origin for the ancestors of the Gilaki and Mazandarani, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">followed by introgression of women (but not men) from local Iranian <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">groups, possibly because of patrilocality.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn29" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[29]</span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The same article
goes on to state that these “Mazandarani and Gilaki groups . . . are
particularly close to the South Caucasus groups—Georgians, Armenians, and Azerbaijanians,”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn30" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[30]</span></span></a>
and that “. . . overall the Y chromosome data do indicate a closer relationship
of the Mazandarani and Gilaki with South Caucasian groups than with Iranian
groups.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn31" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[31]</span></span></a>
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The authors offer a very interesting explanation of these genetic and
linguistic data: “Given that both mtDNA and language are maternally
transmitted, the incorporation of local Iranian women would have resulted in
the concomitant replacement of the ancestral Caucasian language and mtDNA types
of the Gilaki and Mazandarani with their current Iranian language and mtDNA
types.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn32" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[32]</span></span></a></span><span style="color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 20.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "MS Pゴシック"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Pゴシック";"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">In the Alborz Mountains are found numerous pre-Islamic pagan temples
and other ancient archaeological sites, the most important of which is Marlik
Tepe, which “apparently represents the royal cemetery of a culture that first
settled in the highlands of the northern slopes of the Alborz mountains in the
mid-2nd millenium B.C.E. and flourished there for several centuries. This
highly developed culture, especially notable for its bronze industry, covered
the southern zone of the Caspian Sea and the northern slopes of the Alborz
mountains, and exerted a strong influence that spread throughout the ancient
world.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn33" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[33]</span></span></a>
According to Negahban, the Marlik Tepe site shows clear cultural associations
with the Hurrians.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn34" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[34]</span></span></a> Subsequently,</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "MS Pゴシック"; mso-bidi-font-size: 24.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Pゴシック";"> “t</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">he Gelae
(Gilites) seem to have entered the region south of the Caspian coast and west
of the Amardos River (later Safīdrūd) in the second or first century B.C.E.
Pliny identifies them with the C</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">a</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">d</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">u</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">sii previously living there. More likely they
were a separate people, coming perhaps from the region of Dāḡestān, and
superseded the C</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">a</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">d</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">u</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">sii.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn35" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[35]</span></span></a>
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">If, along with these data, we consider the arguments for a Kartvelian
substratum underlying the Armenian language,<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn36" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[36]</span></span></a>
it appears that Kartvelian-speaking areas may have formerly extended southeastward
from the Caucasus, reaching the Caspian Sea in the vicinity of Lenkoran; and extending
from there far southward and eastward along the Caspian littoral and deep into
the Alborz Mountains. </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">Gernot Windfuhr</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">
identifies several of the ancient peoples of the region as speakers of South
Caucasian (Kartvelian) languages, including the Caspii, the C</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ă</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">d</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ū</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">sii,
and the Gelae.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn37" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[37]</span></span></a> Even if
Madelung is correct in regarding the Gelae as a later intrusion from Daghestan,
Windfuhr’s hypothesis links the Marlik Tepe site to prehistoric Kartvelians.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">Alongside these Kartvelian (or
“para-Kartvelian”) languages, a belt of Northeast Caucasian languages appears
to have extended intermittently from Chechnya and Daghestan into the Alborz
Mountains, continuing still further east to the Gulf of Astarabad and beyond,
into Khorasan and Turkmenistan.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn38" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[38]</span></span></a>
These included the languages of the Amardi [Mardi], the Tapyrii [Tapyri,
Tapuri, Tapyrrhi], the Hyrc</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ā</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">ni, and the </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Derb</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ī</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ces [Derbiccae,
Derbecii, Derbii, Derbissi]</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">, as well as the languages of the M</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ă</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">ti</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ā</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">ni of western
Azerbaijan and (possibly) the Mannaeans of Kurdistan.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn39" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[39]</span></span></a>
All of these “may have belonged to the sometimes postulated North
Caucasian-Central Asian continuum of languages, which was erased by the
Iranians. The earlier name of Gorgan [Astarabad] was <i>Khnanta</i>, whose
initial /khn/ is phonotactically non-Indo-European.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn40" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[40]</span></span></a>
Windfuhr posits that this “Caucasus-Central Asian continuum . . . would have
met the western (South Caucasian) Caspians somewhere between Mazandaran and
Gilan.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn41" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[41]</span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
implication of these arguments is that a patchwork of both Kartvelian and
Northeast Caucasian languages once extended throughout the Alborz Mountains,
and from there (in the case of the latter phylum at least) deep into Central
Asia. These languages were eventually replaced by Indo-Iranian languages.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
light of the clear evidence of the involvement of both Kartvelians and
Northeast Caucasians with metallurgy and the associated trade-routes, it is
possible that linguistic enclaves belonging to both of these phyla were
formerly found all the way across Central Asia to the Altai Mountains.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">2. Kartvelian
Linguistic Connections to Central Asia<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>According
to Johanna Nichols, “. . . Kartvelian (South Caucasian), . . . may be a
survivor of a pre-Indo-European spread along the route from Central Asia to
Anatolia. Kartvelian, with its personal pronouns *<i>me(n)-</i> ‘first
singular’, *</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 15.0pt;">š</span></i><i><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">en-</span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"> ‘second
singular’, belongs to the dozen or so north Eurasian stocks with what can be
called “me” – “thee” pronoun systems. Kartvelian is the sole exception to the
generalization that stocks with such systems can be traced to proto-homelands
in the vicinity of the eastern steppe or the north Mongolian region. If
Kartvelian survives from a pre-Indo-European expansion, then it has spread from
the usual center along the usual route, its pronouns reflect the usual type of
the original center, and the generalization about pronoun systems in northern
Eurasia is without exception.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn42" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[42]</span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
a later article, Nichols writes, “Kartvelian seems to have moved to the
southern Caucasus sometime after the IE [Indo-European] dispersal, by which
time the westward trajectory of languages had certainly begun to operate.
Kartvelian is therefore likely to have emanated from somewhere to the
south-east of the Caspian, where it was in a position to be pulled into the
desert trajectory of language spreads, thus to spread westward to its present
location. The locus of PIE [proto-Indo-European] was farther east and farther
north, so that it spread to the steppe as well.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn43" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[43]</span></span></a></span><span style="color: #ffff99; font-family: Arial; font-size: 32.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "MS Pゴシック"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Pゴシック";"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Thus,
surprisingly, Nichols posits an eastern origin for the Kartvelian language phylum
(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">contra</i> Windfuhr, whose arguments
appear to imply that Kartvelians expanding from the west into the Alborz
Mountains encountered Northeast Caucasians coming from the east).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">3. Genetic Associations
with the Altai region involving mtDNA haplogroup X2e<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
recent study of human genetics has revealed that mtDNA haplogroup X is
relatively rare but widespread. Its subclade X2 appears to be associated with the
expansion and dispersal of human populations at around the time of the Last
Glacial Maximum (20,000 years ago), and is most strongly represented in the
Near East, the Caucasus, and the Mediterranean.</span><span style="color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 24.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "MS Pゴシック"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Pゴシック";"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Particular
concentrations appear in Georgia (8%), the Orkney Islands (7%), and among the
Druze community (27%). From time to time, I have come across a claim (in
non-academic sources) that concentrations of X2 as high as 9.1% have been found
among the remains of ancient Basques.</span><span style="color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 24.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "MS Pゴシック"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Pゴシック";"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The strong representation of haplogroup X in Anatolia supports
suggestions that the Kartvelian and Etruscan languages may be connected (since
the Etruscans migrated from Asia Minor). Its presence among ancient Basques (if
confirmed) would support the “Basque-Caucasian Hypothesis.”</span><span style="color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 28.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "MS Pゴシック"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Pゴシック";"> </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">According to Classical sources, Tartessus (Tarshish) was founded in the
year 1100 B.C. by refugees from Troy—another link to Anatolia.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A
strong representation of haplogroup X in the Orkney Islands suggests an
association with the ancient Picts (who apparently spoke a non-Indo-European
language), and may be related to the exploitation of British sources of tin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">This supports Theo
Vennemann’s hypothesis that Vasconic [Basque-like] languages were formerly
spoken throughout much of western Europe.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn44" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[44]</span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: #191919; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 15.0pt;">The findings of Reidla <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i> (2003) are extremely pertinent to
our discussion of the prehistory of the peoples of the Caucasus region: “Clades
X2e and X2f encompass the majority (87.1%) of the sequences from the South
Caucasus area and show coalescence times (12,000 ± 4,000 YBP and 10,800 ± 5,000
YBP, respectively) consistent with a Late Upper Paleolithic (LUP) origin and a
subsequent spread in the region. We found significant differences between the
haplogroup distribution between the North and the South Caucasian samples, a
result that indicates a major geographical barrier between the two regions.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn45" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[45]</span></span></a>
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">While nearly absent from Asian populations, mtDNA haplogroup X is found
in the Altai region. Reidla <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i>
connect the presence of haplogroup X2 in the Altai region to a relatively
recent migration from the South Caucasus: </span><span style="color: #191919; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 15.0pt;">“Clade X2e . . . encompasses
all haplogroup X sequences in the Altaians . . . under the assumption that
these sequences are a random sample of the Altaian haplogroup X, an extimated ρ
value <0.33 (P<.05) was obtained. This value corresponds to a time depth
of <6,700 years, and it would suggest that Altaians have acquired haplogroup
X2 only relatively recently.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn46" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[46]</span></span></a>
</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The editors of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wikipedia</i> provide the following summary
of these findings: “The Altaian sequences are all almost identical (haplogroup
X2e), suggesting that they arrived in the area probably from the South Caucasus
more recently than 5,000 years ago.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn47" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[47]</span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">These findings comport very well with the other lines of evidence for
some sort of late prehistoric connection of the Kartvelian peoples to the Altai
region, and the time-depth estimated for the spread of X2e to the Altai region
clearly associates it with early developments in metallurgy and the associated
trade-routes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
the New World, subclades X2a and X2g are found in North America among the
Algonquian peoples (25%), the Siouan peoples (15%), the Nootka (Wakashan
phylum] (11-13%), the Navajo [Na-Dene phylum] (7%), and the Yakama [Penutian
phylum] (5%).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn48" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[48]</span></span></a> All of
these Native American nations have some association with the Pacific Northwest.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Surprisingly, X2a is also found among the Yanomamö of the Amazon basin
(12%).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn49" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[49]</span></span></a>
X2a has also been identified in the bones of a chief of the extinct Beothuk
nation of Newfoundland,<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn50" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[50]</span></span></a>
and in Florida burial sites from <i>circa</i> 6000 B.C.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn51" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[51]</span></span></a>
This might explain its occurrence among the Yanomamö; the (extinct) Timucua
language of Florida has been connected to the Warao language of Venezuela,
suggesting migration between the two continents by way of the Antilles.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn52" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[52]</span></span></a><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The presence of mtDNA haplogroup X in the New World is hard to
interpret. The prevailing opinion is that it entered North America by way of
the Bering Strait, but its presence in the Americas has also been seen as
evidence of an independent migration from Europe by way of the Greenland Ice
Sheet (the so-called Solutrean Hypothesis).</span><span style="color: #191919; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 15.0pt;"> Statements by Derenko <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i> (2001) tend to support the former
position: “the Altaian X haplotypes occupy the intermediate position between
European and American Indian haplogroup X mtDNA lineages.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn53" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[53]</span></span></a></span><b><span style="color: #191919; font-family: Arial; font-size: 19.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"> </span></b><span style="color: #191919; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
light of recent rapid advances in DNA research, it appears likely that within a
very few years, most of the hypotheses mentioned in this paper will be either
confirmed or laid to rest.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black;">WORKS CITED<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
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Bengtson, John D. “<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">Ein Vergleich von buruschaski und nordkaukasisch.”
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Brown, Michael D., S<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">eyed H. Hosseini</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;">, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Antonio Torroni</span>, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Hans-Jürgen Bandelt</span>, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Jon C.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Allen</span>, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Theodore G. Schurr</span>, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Rosaria Scozzari</span>, <span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Fulvio Cruciani & Douglas C.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Wallace</span></span>.
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Easton, <span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Courier; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.5pt;">Ruth D., Andrew </span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Courier; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">Merriwether,
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Krause, Johannes<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">,
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Kuch, Melanie,
</span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Darren R. Gr</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ö</span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">cke,</span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 7.0pt;"> </span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;">Martin
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Murakami, A., </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">P. Darby,
B. Javornik, M.S.S. Pais, E. Seigner, A. Lutz &
P. Svoboda</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“Molecular
Phylogeny of Wild Hops, <i>Humulus lupulus L.</i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">”<i> Heredity </i></span>97 (2006):<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>66-74.</span></div>
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Nasidze, Ivan, <span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 8.0pt;">Dominique Quinque,</span><span style="color: #000058; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 5.5pt;"> </span><span style="color: black; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 8.0pt;">Manijeh
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“<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPSHEL-B; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Concomitant
Replacement of Language and mtDNA in South<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Caspian
Populations of Iran.” </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPSHN-M; mso-bidi-font-size: 7.0pt;">Current Biology</span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPSHN-M; mso-bidi-font-size: 7.0pt;"> 16 (2006):
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Negahban,
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Nichols,
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Nichols, Johanna. <i>Linguistic
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Nichols, Johanna. “The Origin of the Chechen and
Ingush: A Study in Alpine Linguistic<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>and
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Phillips, E.D. “The Legend of Aristeas: Fact and Fancy
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<span style="color: #191919; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Reidla, Maere, </span><span style="color: #191919; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 15.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Toomas Kivisild, Ene Metspalu, Katrin Kaldma,
Kristiina Tambets,<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Helle-Viivi
Tolk, Jüri Parik, Eva-Liis Loogväli, Miroslava Derenko, Boris<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Malyarchuk,
Marina Bermisheva, Sergey Zhadanov, Erwan Pennarun, Marina<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Gubina,
Maria Golubenko, Larisa Damba, Sardana Fedorova, Vladislava Gusar,<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Elena
Grechanina, Ilia Mikerezi, Jean-Paul Moisan, André Chaventré, Elsa<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Khusnutdinova,
Ludmila Osipova, Vadim Stepanov, Mikhail Voevoda,<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Alessandro
Achilli, Chiara Rengo, Olga Rickards, Gian Franco De Stefano,<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Surinder
Papiha, Lars Beckman, Branka Janicijevic, Pavao Rudan, Nicholas<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Anagnou,
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Geberhiwot, Corinna Herrnstadt, Neil Howell, Antonio Torroni &<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Richard
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Rice, Tamara Talbot.
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Shackley,
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Sherratt,
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Skrede, Inger, Pernille Bronken Eidesen, Rosalia Pi<span style="color: #262626; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana;">ñ</span>eiro Portela &
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Stilo, Donald.
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Stilo, Donald.
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Sturua, Natela. “On the Basque-Caucasian Hypothesis.” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Studia Linguistica</i> 45:1-2<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">(1991): 164-175.</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Sulimirski,
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Thornton, Christopher P. “Of Brass and Bronze in
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Susan La Niece, Duncan Hook, and<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Paul
Craddock, 123-135. London: Archetype Publications Ltd., 2007.</div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">Толстов, С.П. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Древний Хорезм</i>.
Москва: Изд-во МГУ, 1948.</span></div>
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Tsaroieva, Muriel. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 20.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Mythes, légendes et pri</span></i><i><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">è</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 20.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">res ancestrales des ingouches et tchétch</span></i><i><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">è</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 20.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">nes</span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 20.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Paris:
L’Harmattan, 2009.</span></div>
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Tsaroieva, Muriel. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Racines
m</i><i><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">é</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sopotamiennes et anatoliennes des Ingouches
et des<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Tch</i><i><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ét</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ch</i><i><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">è</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nes.</i> Paris: Riveneuve editions, 2005.</div>
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Vennemann, Theo. <i><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Europa Vasconica – Europa Semitica. </span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Berlin: Walter de Gruyter,<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>2003.</span></div>
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Wikipedia, s.v. “<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 26.0pt;">Haplogroup X (mtDNA).”</span></div>
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Wikipedia, s.v. “Hurrians.”</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Wikipedia,
s.v. “Lapis Lazuli.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">Windfuhr, Gernot. </span><i><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Encyclopedia
Iranica</span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">, s.v. </span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">“</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-bidi-font-size: 33.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Iran vii. Non-Iranian Languages,” 2006.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[1]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Natela
Sturua, “On the Basque-Caucasian Hypothesis,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Studia Linguistica</i> 45:1-2 (1991), 164-175.</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
</div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[2]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Tamara Talbot Rice, <i>The
Scythians</i>, 2d ed. (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1957), 33.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[3]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Tadeusz Sulimirski, <i>The
Sarmatians</i> (New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1970), 70.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[4]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">E.D. Phillips, “The Legend
of Aristeas: Fact and Fancy in Early Greek Notions of East Russia, Siberia, and
Inner Asia,” <i>Artibus Asiae </i>18:2 (1955), 175.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[5]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Sulimirski, 70.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[6]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">James P. Mallory,
"Kuro-Araxes Culture,” in <i>Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</i>
(1997), 341-2.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[7]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Muriel Tsaroieva, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Racines m</i></span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">é</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">sopotamiennes et anatoliennes des Ingouches et des Tch</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">é</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">ch</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">è</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">nes</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> (Paris: Riveneuve editions,
2005), 303-305; Johanna Nichols, “The Origin of the Chechen and Ingush: A Study
in Alpine Linguistic and Ethnic Geography,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Anthropological
Linguistics</i> 46:2 (2004), 140; Amjad M. Jaimoukha, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Chechens: A Handbook</i> (New York: RoutledgeCurzon, 2005), 29.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[8]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Wikipedia, s.v. “Hurrians.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[9]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">С.П.
Толстов, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Древний Хорезм</i> (Москва:
Изд-во МГУ, 1948).</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[10]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Georgina Herrmann, “Lapis
Lazuli: The Early Phases of Its Trade,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Iraq</i>
30:1 (1968), 28.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[11]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Andrew
Sherratt, “Trade Routes: Growth of Global Trade. The West-Eurasia World System,
3600-1400 BC,” (2004), in <i>ArchAtlas</i>, 4<sup>th</sup> ed. (2010),
http://www.archatlas.org/Trade/WEtrade.php (accessed: 22 September 2010);
Wikipedia, s.v. “Lapis Lazuli.”</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[12]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">John D. Bengtson, “</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">Ein
vergleich von buruschaski und nordkaukasisch,” <i>Georgica</i> 20 (1997),
88-94.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Giumlia-Mair and Fulvia Lo Schiavo (eds.), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Problem of Early Tin</i> (Oxford: Archaeopress, 2003). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[14]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">J. Magens Mello, “The Dawn
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[15]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">C.E.N. Bromehead, “The
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[16]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Christopher P. Thornton, “Of
Brass and Bronze in Prehistoric Southwest Asia,” in <i>Metals and Mines:
Studies in Archaeometallurgy</i> (London: Archetype Publications Ltd., 2007),
129.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[17]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Thornton, 130.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[18]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Johannes Krause <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i>, “Neanderthals in Central Asia
and Siberia,” <i>Nature</i> 449 (18 October 2007), 902-904.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[19]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Johannes Krause <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i>, “T</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt;">he complete
mitochondrial DNA genome of an unknown hominin from southern Siberia,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nature</i> 464 (8 April 2010), 894-897.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[20]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Inger Skrede <i>et al.</i>,
“Refugia, differentiation and postglacial migration in arctic-alpine Eurasia,
exemplified by the mountain avens (<i>Dryas octopetala L.),” Molecular Ecology </i>15:7
<i>(</i>2006), 1827.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[21]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">A. Murakami <i>et al.</i>,
“Molecular Phylogeny of Wild Hops, <i>Humulus lupulus L.,” Heredity </i>97
(2006), 66-74.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[22]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Muriel Tsaroieva, </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 20.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Mythes, légendes
et pri</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">è</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 20.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">res ancestrales des ingouches et tchétch</span></i><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">è</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 20.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">nes</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 20.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> (Paris: L’Harmattan, 2009), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">passim</i>.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[23]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">John Colarusso,
“Ethnographic Information on a Wild Man of the Caucasus,” in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Manlike Monsters on Trial: Early Records and
Modern Evidence</i>, ed. Marjorie M. Halpin and Michael M. Ames (Vancouver:
University of British Columbia Press, 1980), 258.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[24]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Colarusso, 257-258.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[25]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Myra Shackley, <i>Wildmen:
Yeti, Sasquatch and the Neanderthal Enigma </i>(London: Thames & Hudson,
1983), 98.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn26" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[26]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Donald Stilo, <i>Encyclopedia
Iranica</i>, s.v. “Gilan (Languages)” (2001).</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn27" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[27]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Donald Stilo, “The Tati
Language Group in the Sociolinguistic Context of Northwestern Iran and
Transcaucasia,” <i>Iranian Studies </i>14:3/4 (1981), 143-144.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn28" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[28]</span></span></i></span></a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Ibid.</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">,
162.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn29" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[29]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Ivan Nasidze <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et
al.</i>, “</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPSHEL-B; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Concomitant Replacement of Language and mtDNA
in South Caspian Populations of Iran,” </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPSHN-M; mso-bidi-font-size: 7.0pt;">Current Biology</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPSHN-M; mso-bidi-font-size: 7.0pt;"> 16 (2006), 668.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: AdvPSHEL-B; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn30" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[30]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Nasidze <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i>, 669.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn31" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[31]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Nasidze <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i>, 671.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn32" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[32]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Nasidze <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i>, 668.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn33" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[33]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">O. Negahban, <i>Encyclopedia
Iranica</i>, s.v. “Gilan (Archaeology)” (2001).</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn34" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[34]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">O. Negahban, “The Seals of
Marlik Tepe,” <i>JNES</i> 36:2 (1977).</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn35" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[35]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Wilferd Madelung, <i>Encyclopedia
Iranica</i>, s.v. “Gilan (History in the Early Islamic Period)” (2001).</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; tab-stops: 28.0pt 56.0pt 84.0pt 112.0pt 140.0pt 168.0pt 196.0pt 224.0pt 3.5in 280.0pt 308.0pt 336.0pt; text-autospace: none;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn36" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[36]</span></span></span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.5pt;">Kevin Tuite, “The Rise and
Fall and Revival of the Ibero-Caucasian Hypothesis,” </span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times;">Historiographia<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Linguistica</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Times; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">
35:1 (2007), 36 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">n</i>. 23.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn37" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[37]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">Gernot
Windfuhr, </span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Encyclopedia
Iranica</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">,
s.v. </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">“</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Georgia; mso-bidi-font-size: 33.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Iran vii. Non-Iranian
Languages” (2006).</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn38" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[38]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Derb</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ī</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ces appear to have been intrusive
to the region, having recently expanded into the Caspian littoral from their
territories in Margiana.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn39" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[39]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">For the consideration of
comparative linguists, I have indicated vowel-lengths for several of these
ethnic designations as they appear in the Lewis and Short <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Latin English Lexicon</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn40" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[40]</span></span></span></a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Ibid.</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn41" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[41]</span></span></span></a><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Ibid.</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn42" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[42]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Johanna Nichols, <i>Linguistic
Diversity in Space and Time </i>(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992),
313 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">n</i>. 3.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn43" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[43]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Johanna Nichols, “The
Epicentre of the Indo-European Linguistic Spread,” in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Archaeology and Language I: Theoretical and Methodological Orientations</i>
(New York: Routledge, 1997), 128.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn44" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[44]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Theo Vennemann, </span><i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Europa Vasconica – Europa
Semitica </span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">(Berlin:
Walter de Gruyter, 2003).</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn45" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[45]</span></span></span></a><span style="color: #191919; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Maere Reidla <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al</i>., “Origin and Diffusion of mtDNA Haplogroup X,”<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> American Journal of Human Genetics</i> 73:5
(2003), 1178-1190.</span><span style="color: #191919; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn46" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[46]</span></span></a>I<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bid.</i></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn47" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[47]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Wikipedia, s.v. “</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Helvetica; mso-bidi-font-size: 26.0pt;">Haplogroup
X (mtDNA).”</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn48" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[48]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Michael D. Brown <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i>, “</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Optima; mso-bidi-font-size: 15.5pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">mtDNA Haplogroup X: An Ancient Link between
Europe/Western Asia and North America?” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">American
Journal of Human Genetics</i> 63 (1998), 1852.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn49" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[49]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Ruth D. Easton <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i>, “</span><span style="color: #191919; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">mtDNA Variation in the Yanomami: Evidence for
Additional New World Founding Lineages,” </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Optima; mso-bidi-font-size: 15.5pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">American Journal of Human
Genetics</span></i><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Optima; mso-bidi-font-size: 15.5pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> 59:1
(1996), 213.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn50" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[50]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Melanie Kuch <i>et al</i>.,
“A Preliminary Analysis of the DNA and Diet of the Extinct Beothuk: A
Systematic Approach to Ancient Human DNA,” <i>American Journal of Physical
Anthropology</i> 132 (2007), 594-604.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn51" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[51]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Robert L. Kelly and David
Hurst Thomas, <i>Archaeology</i>, 5<sup>th</sup> ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth,
2010), 255.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn52" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[52]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Julian Granberry, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A Grammar and Dictionary of the Timucua
Language</i>, 2d ed. (Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1993), <i>passim.</i></span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn53" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[53]</span></span></span></a><span style="color: #191919; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-size: 19.0pt; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Miroslava V. Derenko <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">et al.</i>, “The Presence of Mitochondrial
Haplogroup X in Altaians from South Siberia,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">American Journal of Human Genetics</i> 69:1 (2001), 237-241.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
<!--EndFragment-->Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-56259250729930557272012-01-28T21:25:00.001-08:002012-01-28T21:25:40.813-08:00The Third Heaven (2010)<!--StartFragment-->
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Third Heaven: Biblical Arguments for Astrology, <o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>as Presented by King Vakht’ang VI and
by the<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Anonymous Author of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> (Q-867)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Timothy P. Grove, Biola University<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Published
in </b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">A Collection of Scientific
Papers Dedicated to<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>the
70<sup>th</sup> Anniversary of the Academician Roin Metreveli</span></i></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">
<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Tbilisi: Artanuji Publishers,
2010).<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>Personal
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Timothy P. Grove, Biola University, La Mirada, California,
U.S.A. <a href="mailto:timothy.grove@biola.edu">timothy.grove@biola.edu</a> </div>
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Mr. Grove is an Assistant
Professor, and has taught English at Biola’s English Language Studies Program
and Talbot School of Theology since 1997. <span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">He has also taught English in Myanmar and has conducted
graduate research in the Republic of Georgia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is currently pursuing a Ph.D in Intercultural Studies
under Dr. Douglas Hayward.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His
research interests include Neo-Latin literature, the Western astrological
tradition, and the history, literature, culture, and folklore of Georgia and
the Caucasus (17<sup>th</sup>-18<sup>th</sup> centuries).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Title:</span></u></b><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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The Third Heaven: Biblical Arguments for Astrology, as
Presented by King Vakht’ang VI and by the Anonymous Author of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia </i>(Q-867)<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Abstract:<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">An examination of the
prefaces to two Georgian astrological texts, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i>
1670) and Vakht’ang VI’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis Codnis
C’igni</i> (1721) reveals both similarities and differences in their use of the
Scriptures to validate the study of astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A comparison of these texts to various contemporary Western
defenses of astrology demonstrates some interesting parallels, suggesting that
these Georgian texts fit within a larger rhetorical tradition.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
opening section of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>
cites six different biblical passages in support of chiromancy and various
astrological and cosmological ideas; one of these (II Corinthians 12:2, “<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">such a man was caught up to
the third heaven”) is cited in a similar context in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cursus Philosophicus</i> of the Jesuit Rodrigo de Arriaga (1632), an
author whom the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> mentions twice by name and whose discussion of the nature of
the heavens he briefly summarizes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This is just one of numerous indications that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> was compiled using a variety of Western
European sources, perhaps with the collaboration of Italian missionaries.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis Codnis C’igni</i> </span>is a
translation of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Risala fi’l-Hay’a</i>
of ‘Ali Qushji of Samarqand (1393/94-1474), and provides a detailed description
of the Ptolemaic system used in erecting horoscopes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The present paper includes an English translation of
Vakht’ang VI’s preface to this work, including three biblical references which
the king uses to develop an argument for the study of astrology.</div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Both
of these works begin with an appeal to scriptural authority, and both writers
are clearly seeking an accommodation between Christian doctrine and the
practice of astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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These texts were
products of a period of national revitalization which involved the
incorporation into the Georgian <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Weltanschauung</i>
of an array of cultural influences from both East and West.</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The Third Heaven:
Biblical Arguments for Astrology, as Presented by King Vakht’ang VI and by the
Anonymous Author of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia </i>(Q-867)<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
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Timothy P. Grove, Biola University, La Mirada, California,
U.S.A.</div>
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<a href="mailto:Timothy.grove@biola.edu">timothy.grove@biola.edu</a>
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<u>Introduction</u></div>
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This paper
examines how two Georgian astrological texts from the early modern period seek
to resolve the tension between Christianity and the practice of astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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The first of these
is the anonymous manuscript known as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> (Q867, also known as the “Star Book”), which appears to have
been written around 1670; the other work considered here is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis Codnis C’igni</i>, printed by king
Vakht’ang VI in 1721. </div>
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These two texts
differ markedly in their contents and in their concerns, yet both fall squarely
within the same rhetorical tradition. Each of these works begins with a highly
interesting preface which makes use of scriptural passages to establish the
validity of astrological ideas.</div>
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<u><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">Astrology and the Church</span></u><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Throughout the
history of the church, astrology has been highly controversial—sometimes
condemned as a form of sorcery, idolatry, or fatalism; sometimes condoned as a
legitimate science and an essential part of God’s natural revelation to
mankind.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While the Scriptures
themselves nowhere explicitly forbid the practice of astrology, the Church
Fathers were nearly unanimous in their condemnation of it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Didache</i>
(which may well be the earliest extant Christian text apart from the New
Testament) forbids astrology in clear and explicit terms: “My child, do not be
a diviner, for that leads to idolatry. Do not be an enchanter or an astrologer
[<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mathematikos</i>] or a magician.
Moreover, have no wish to observe or heed such practices, for all this breeds
idolatry” (3:4).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn1" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[1]</span></span></a></div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Synod of Laodicea (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i> 365) decreed
that “They who are of the priesthood, or of the clergy, shall not be magicians,
enchanters, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mathematici</i> or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">astrologi</i>, <span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">nor shall they make what are called amulets, which are
chains for their own souls. And those who wear such, we command to be cast out
of the Church.” </span>(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Canon 36).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn2" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[2]</span></span></a></i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The use here of two different terms for
astrologers is highly interesting; possibly the term <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mathematici</i> was used to designate learned professional astrologers,
while the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">astrologi </i>were common
fortune tellers.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn3" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[3]</span></span></a> </div>
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As a consequence
of this, astrology was driven underground, and its practitioners were
frequently prosecuted as sorcerers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In Western Europe, technical knowledge of astrology practically
disappeared; in the Byzantine Empire, however, Hellenistic astrology managed to
survive and was eventually transmitted to the Arabs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Astrology flourished among the Arabs, who not only
translated and preserved several important Hellenistic treatises on the
subject, but also produced many original astrological works of their own. </div>
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Ironically, it was
the Scriptures themselves (especially the account of the Magi in Matthew 2—a
passage which contains several technical astrological expressions and has been
construed by some as a validation of astrology) that kept the idea of astrology
alive in the West, as demonstrated by Tertullian’s comments on that passage: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sed magi et astrologi ab Oriente
venerunt.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Scimus magiae et
astrologiae inter se societatem.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Primi igitur stellarum interpretes natum Christum annuntiaverunt, primi
munaverunt. . . . At enim scientia ista usque ad Evangelium fuit concessa, ut,
Christo edito, nemo exinde nativitatem alicujus de caelo interpretaretur</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De idolatria</i> 9.1).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn4" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[4]</span></span></a>
[“But the magi and the astrologers came from the East, and we know that magic
and astrology were closely associated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Now it was these interpreters of the stars who were the first to
proclaim the new-born Christ, and the first to bring Him gifts. . . . But this
science was permitted up to the time of the Gospel, so that once Christ was
proclaimed, no one should thenceforth subject anyone’s birth to astrological
analysis.”]<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Jim Tester
observes, “there is here no suggestion that astrology is mistaken, that it does
not work, that it is empty superstition: only that it is no longer allowed. . .
. The idea, at least, of a potentially valid science of astrology was kept
alive by the very authorities who condemned it.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn5" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[5]</span></span></a></div>
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The 12<sup>th</sup>
century was the age of the Arabists—a small group of translators who used
Arabic sources to produce Latin versions of many works from classical antiquity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In its way, this was an intellectual
revolution of equal significance to the Renaissance of classical learning which
occurred a couple of centuries later.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The translations of the Arabists included a number of astrological
works, culminating in Gerard of Cremona’s translation of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almagest</i> (1176).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn6" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[6]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These translations led to a revival of
astrology in the West. During the Renaissance, astrology was regarded as a
legitimate and creditable field of study. Major universities had chairs of
astrology, and no necessary conflict was perceived to exist between astrology
and Christian faith. Indeed, the period from 1450 to 1650 may be characterized
as the Golden Age of Astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This was the age of the great astrologers, including Cardanus, Gauricus,
Naibod, Junctinus, Argolus, Montulmo, and Nostradamus, to name just a few. The
reformer Philipp Melancthon (1497-1550) occupied the chair of astrology at the
University of Wittenburg.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Joachim
Camerarius (1500-1574), also an famous astrologer, was a professor at Tubingen
and later at Leipzig.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
annotations of Joseph Justus Scaliger (1540-1609) to his edition of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Astronomica</i> of Manilius (1579) are
justly regarded as one of the greatest achievements in the history of classical
scholarship. The astrologer John Dee set the date and time for Queen
Elizabeth’s coronation based on astrological considerations.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn7" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[7]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both Tycho Brahe and Johannes Kepler
cast and interpreted horoscopes for kings and statesmen. The autobiography of
Diego de Torres Villarroel (1743), who taught astrology for many years at the
University of Salamanca, demonstrates that astrology was still held in high
regard during the 18<sup>th</sup> century.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn8" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[8]</span></span></a>
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Numerous
astrological treatises, manuals, almanacs, ephemerides, and collections of
nativities were published.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These
works very often began with some sort of Defense or Apology—a collection of
scriptural, theological, and philosophical arguments seeking to justify
astrology as a Christian practice. Among the more notable defenses were those
published in works by Junctinus (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Speculum
Astrologiae</i>, 1583), Sir Christopher Heydon (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">A Defence of
Judiciall Astrologie, </span></i>1603), William Ramesey (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Astrologia Restaurata</i>, 1653), and Morinus (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Astrologia Gallica</i>, 1661).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Among the biblical texts most commonly cited in defense of astrology
were Genesis 1:14, Psalm 19:1, and Romans 1:18-20.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ramesey, in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Astrologia
Restaurata</i> (1653), presents the following very interesting argument: “for
as [God] hath made the Heavens for the ordinary administration of nature, so he
can whensoever it is his good pleasure, as in the days of Joshuah [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sic</i>], Hezekiah, and at the death of our
Saviour Jesus Christ, alter their course; but since these were miracles, and
thus to do were miraculous, and that we read but of these three times he thus
did work since the Creation, it is not therefore to be ordinarily or frequently
seen, neither ought it then to be objected, since as long as God doth continue
the order of nature, it must needs follow that the effects of the Stars, by
which nature is upheld, have very much of certainty and truth, . . . and [God]
leaveth the effecting of all things to the influence of the Heavens and Stars,
which [are] . . . next under him the sole cause of all mutations and blessings
here on earth, . . . (I.10, pp. 21-22).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn9" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[9]</span></span></a>
Making use of a simple <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">argumentum ad
absurdum</i>, John Partridge seeks to dispose of the alleged scriptural
condemnations of astrology: “And whatever your Assertions are of its being
forbidden in Sacred Writ, they are really false, and do not any more prohibit that,
than the Command given to the Prophet Hosea to Marry a Whore, did justify
Whoredom; for what is said there against it, doth only reprove the Pretenders
abuse of it and the Peoples superstitious dependance [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sic</i>] thereon” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opus
Reformatum</i>, “To the Readers,” viii-ix).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn10" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[10]</span></span></a></div>
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<u>The Opening Chapter of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia </i>(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i> 1670)<o:p></o:p></u></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> (Q 867), a unique manuscript at the National
Centre of Manuscripts (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Xelnac’erta
Erovnuli Cent’ri</i>) in Tbilisi,<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn11" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[11]</span></span></a>
presents a fascinating miscellany of information on a number of subjects. <span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The manuscript comprises 126
quarto leaves, beautifully written in black and red ink, and contains numerous
hand-drawn illustrations which successfully employ shading and
characterization. </span>The work has been described and its contents discussed
by Irakli Simonia.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn12" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[12]</span></span></a> <span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The title <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> ("horoscope
chiromancy") was assigned to the work by its cataloguers, and was
apparently suggested by the first illustration (on page 10 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">verso</i>), of a human hand labeled with the principal lines used in
palmistry, along with their planetary associations; indeed, the third chapter
(10r – 13v) is a short treatise on astrological chiromancy. Since no
title appears either on the binding or at the beginning of the text, and since
most of its chapters discuss astronomical and astrological topics, Dr. Simonia
prefers to designate this manuscript as the “Star Book.”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn13" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[13]</span></span></a>
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Internal evidence suggests
that this manuscript was compiled around 1670 with the collaboration of an
Italian speaker (perhaps one of the Capuchin missionaries who were dispatched
to Georgia in 1661).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn14" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[14]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It appears that several sources from
Western Europe were used in this compilation, most notably the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> of Ottavio Beltrano
(first published at Naples in 1639, and itself based upon the earlier <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Almanacco Perpetuo di Rutilio Benincaso</span></i><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"> (1593).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The text and illustrations of several
sections of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> are
drawn directly from Beltrano’s work, including the series of eclipses (31r –
35r), </span>the Tables of Houses (48v – 54r), the horoscope for 21 June 1635
(58v – 59r), and <span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">the
Perpetual Almanac (60v – 74r).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
Perpetual Almanac section was updated twice by gluing strips of paper over the
original dates, suggesting that the book was in constant use throughout the
eighteenth century and probably into the nineteenth.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The opening chapter of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> (1r – 5r) begins with an allusion to Job 37:7
(“He seals the hand of every man”), which the author connects to the practice
of palmistry—</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">codinaroba romelsa
ec’odebis latinurad k’iromancia </i>(“the knowledge which is called Chiromancy
in Latin”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Here we have the first
indication that parts of this work are based on Western sources.</div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
writer goes on to argue that the birth of every human being is marked by unique
planetary influences, a fact which should lead us to examine the correlation
between celestial phenomena and human affairs.</div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
writer now proceeds to a very interesting discussion of the structure of the
heavens.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He quotes three biblical
passages in support of the plurality of the heavens: Psalm 148:4-5 (“Praise
Him, highest heavens, and the waters that are above the heavens, let them
praise the name of the Lord”); Ephesians 4:10 (“<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">He who ascended far above all the heavens”); and II
Corinthians 12:2 (“such a man was caught up to the third heaven”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From these testimonies, he concludes
that the heavens are indeed manifold.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
writer next (1v) cites a certain “astrologer” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">munajibi</i>) named “Ariaga,” who he says was “of Arabian race” (</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">romeli iq’o arabi guarita</i><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">),</b> and who is supposed to have
addressed various questions as to the number, nature, and composition of the
heavens.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This person was none
other than the Jesuit Rodrigo de Arriaga Mendo (1592-1662), a professor at
Valladolid and Salamanca, and at Prague from 1625.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn15" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[15]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In light of this, the Georgian writer’s
comment that he was “of Arabian race” is quite puzzling.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Arriaga’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cursus Philosophicus</i> (Antwerp, 1632) was extremely
influential.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Arriaga was one of
the first philosophers to take cognizance of Galileo’s telescopic discoveries
and to examine their philosophical implications: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">non multis autem ab hinc annis propter quorumdam Mathematicorum &
Astronomorum diligentes observationes, quas, novis exquisitisque instrumentis
adiuti, invenerunt, & praecipue tubi optici subsidio, caelorum structura
penitus a nonnullis inverti coepit</i>. (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Disputatio
Unica Caelestis</i>, sectio iii).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn16" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[16]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(“not many years ago, because of the
careful observations of a number of astrologers and astronomers which they made
with the aid of excellent new instruments, especially the telescope, some began
to completely overturn the structure of the heavens”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This statement accords very well with
the known concerns of the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>, who makes reference to Galileo’s telescopic discoveries in
chapter eight (21v).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn17" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[17]</span></span></a> Arriaga
refers to a number of recent scientific discoveries, including the four
satellites of Jupiter (iii.3.25), sunspots (iii.3.28), and the diurnal
visibility of stars from the bottom of a mineshaft<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(vi.68). In the 5<sup>th</sup> edition of his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cursus Philosophicus</i> (1669), Arriaga
describes how he replicated Galileo’s experiments with falling bodies by
dropping heavy objects from the cupola of the Prague Cathedral and from the
parapets of Karlstein Castle.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn18" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[18]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
specific passage referenced by the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> is the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Disputatio
Unica Caelestis</i>, found on pages 497-508 of the 1632 edition of Arriaga’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cursus Philosophicus</i>. Here, Arriaga
addresses a number of questions: the composition and uniformity of the heavens,
their number and their motions, whether the heavens are animate or inanimate,
whether they are corruptible or incorruptible, and whether they are solid or
fluid.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn19" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[19]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These correspond more or less to the
questions inventoried in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> and attributed to “Ariaga”: whether the heavens are composed of
four elements, whether they are spiritual, whether they are perfect, whether
they are solid, whether they are self-illuminated, and whether they are
manifold.</div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Both
Arriaga and the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> frequently quote the Scriptures to support their ideas.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One of the verses cited in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> (II Cor. 12:2) is
also cited by Arriaga in the section entitled <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De numero caelorum</i> (iv.1.48), in connection with the opinion of St.
Ambrose and others that there are three heavens.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Arriaga ends by rejecting this opinion, concluding that the
heavens number not three or eleven, but nine (iv.2.52).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Still, it seems likely that the writer
of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> was following
Arriaga in bringing this passage to bear on the same question.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>After
this reference to Arriaga comes a fascinating but difficult passage, in which
the writer seems to be stating that the celestial spheres are self-similar in
the same way as an object and its reflection in a mirror.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, the earth is like a mirror which
reflects the heavens, and hell lies in the depths of this same mirror.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hell is located at the center of the
earth, and comprises four concentric circles, the outermost circle being
designated as Abraham’s Bosom (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">abrahamis
c’iaghi</i>, cf. Luke 16:22-23), the second as Limbo (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">limbo</i>, the abode of unbaptized infants—a Roman Catholic idea which
again suggests Western influence), the third as the Mercy Seat (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">salxinebuli</i>, cf. Ex. 25:17) or Purgatory
(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">gansac’mendeli</i>), and the innermost circle
as Eternal Hell (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sauk’uno jojoxeti</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The writer proceeds to delineate the
precise diameters of each of these circles in Georgian leagues (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">aghaji</i>), beginning with Eternal Hell and
measuring outward from the center of the earth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He then gives the diameter of the earth itself, according to
“the earth-measurers who in Latin are called Cosmographers” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kueq’nis mzomelni romelsa ec’odebis
latinurad k’ozmograpini</i>).<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: .5in;">
There follows a
discussion of the spheres of the four elements.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The author argues that the sphere of water lies at the root
(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dziri</i>) of the other three, citing
two passages from the Psalms in support of this idea: Psalm 103:10 (104:10)
(“[the waters] flow between the mountains”); and Psalm 135:6 (136:6) (“<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Him who spread out the earth
above the waters”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Again, he
gives precise measurements for the diameter of the sphere of fire (the
uppermost of the four elements). Next comes a discussion of the dimensions of
the sphere of the moon, which, again, is likened to a mirror.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For this the writer suggests several
alternate values, “but we concur with Ariaga the Arab that the moon is
one-third the size of the earth.” (3v<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">:
magram chven vimoc’mebt ariaga arabsa rom mtovare ars kueq’anis mesamedis odeni</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In fact, while Arriaga does touch
briefly on this idea, which arises from the apparent size of the earth’s shadow
during a lunar eclipse (v.55), he considers it highly problematical, and leaves
the question open.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">This opening chapter
concludes with a discussion of the dimensions of the spheres of Mercury, Venus,
the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn (3v-5r).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is no indication of how or by whom all these curious
measurements were derived.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">It will be seen that this
preface incorporates six different quotations from the Scriptures.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, unlike the defenses of
astrology current in Western Europe, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> shows little interest in engaging in a polemic about astrology;
rather, it cites biblical texts to support specific claims and ideas as they
arise.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In this sense, the Georgian
writer’s use of the Scriptures is very similar to Arriaga’s.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> apparently saw no need to justify the
fundamental assumptions of astrology, nor did he recognize any conflict between
astrology and Christian thought.<a href="" name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a href="" name="OLE_LINK2"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It
is in his opening remarks about chiromancy that this writer comes closest to
the approach of the Western defenders of astrology—here, a single passage from
the book of Job is used to legitimate the highly dubious practice of palmistry,
an argument which is then immediately generalized to include astrology as well.<o:p></o:p></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><u><span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Vakht’ang VI’s Preface to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis
Codnis C’igni</i> (1721)</span></u></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span style="font-family: Geneva; font-size: 9.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis Codnis C’igni</i> (“Book of
knowledge of creation”), a treatise on spherical geometry and geocentric
astronomy, was published by Vakh’tang VI in 1721. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was one of only 17 titles printed on the press brought
from Wallachia by Mihail Isvanovici (known in Georgia as Mikheil
St’epaneshvili). These were the first books printed in Tbilisi, and were
published between 1709 and 1723, when a Turkish invasion put an end to the
king’s publishing operation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They
included portions of the Georgian Bible, as well as the first printed edition
of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vepxis T’q’aosani</i> (1712).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis
Codnis C’igni</i> must have been seen as a valuable and important book, to be
found in such select company!</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis Codnis C’igni</i> is a translation
of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Risala fi’l-Hay’a</i> (“Treatise
on Geometry”) of ‘Ali Qushji of Samarqand (1393/94-1474), and includes a
preface written by Vakht’ang VI. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis
Codnis C’igni</i> (note how the king has Christianized the work’s title) was
translated from the Persian by the king himself with the aid of Persian
scholars, including one Mirza Abduriza Tavrizeli. Between 200 and 300 copies of
this book were printed.</span></span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn20" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[20]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"> Its
contents have been discussed by Tamar Abuladze</span></span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn21" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[21]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"> and by
Irakli Simonia.</span></span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn22" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[22]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><a href="" name="OLE_LINK7"></a><a href="" name="OLE_LINK8"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK7;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis Codnis C’igni</i> is a long and
difficult text.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Its complex
scientific language has been carefully analyzed by Tamar Abuladze.</span></a></span></span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn23" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK7;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[23]</span></span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK8;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK7;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The work begins by explaining the most
fundamental concepts of geometry (the point, the line, the plane), and proceeds
from there to explain the principles of celestial mechanics, especially the
complex cycles of the Moon and its nodes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>As far as I have been able to discover, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis Codnis C’igni</i> contains no material pertaining
specifically to prognostication or horoscopic interpretation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></span></span></div>
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK7;"></span><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK8;"></span>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis Codnis C’igni</i> is 151 pages in
length, and is illustrated with 29 hand-drawn diagrams in red and black ink; in
several cases, one can still see the hole left by the illustrator’s
compass!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I have examined two
copies of this work at the National Parliamentary Library (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sakartvelos P’arlament’is Erovnuli Biblioteka</i>) in Tbilisi—one of
them hand-illustrated, the other with spaces left for illustrations which were
never added.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis
Codnis C’igni </i>presents a geocentric model of the universe, the same as that
described by Claudius Ptolemy in the second century A.D.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Was this because Vakht’ang VI was
unaware of the Copernican revolution?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Not at all—it was because calculations based on a geocentric model were
(and still are) used to cast horoscopes. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis
Codnis C’igni </i>presents in compact form a geocentric but phenomenologically
accurate description of the motions of the heavenly bodies, with a view to its
practical use in casting horoscopes.<a href="" name="OLE_LINK3"></a><a href="" name="OLE_LINK4"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK3;"> Thus, while its emphasis is more upon the pure
mathematics of erecting a horoscope, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis
Codnis C’igni </i>is still an astrological work.</span></a></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK4;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK3;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></span></span></span></span></div>
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"></span><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"></span>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: .5in;">
I here provide a
transcription and translation of the king’s preface, which as far as I know has
never before appeared in English.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn24" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[24]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">It'q'vis
c'inasc'armet'q'veli davit: me tkvi gank'virvebisa chemsa rame tu q’oveli k’aci
cru ars: da tvit upali brdzanebs aravin ars saxier garna mxolo <u>ghia</u>: ara
tu amistvis ars brdzaneba ese vitarmed <u>q'ia</u> k’aci cru ars nu iq’opin:
aramed vervis malucs tvinier mis mier movlinebulta: sc’orebit cnobad sakmeta
uplisata:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>da arca vin ars
ch’eshmarit’ebit mcnobel amisa romel ara ip’ova ama shina sicrue: aramed
ravdenta misca sibrdzne da gulisxmis q’opa: da mat c’q’aloba igi p’at’iosani
up’at’iota zeda sakmeta ara ishromes: da raodenta dzalumles misve kmnulta
mic’domad dashures: da gamchart’nes pilosoposta mraval mecnierebani da matni
sc’avlani: da eseca varsk’ulavt rac xva erti matganive ars: da sakartvelo mravl
gzis mt’ertagan mok’rebul iq’o da arghara da shtomil iq’o kartulsa enasa zeda
sc’avla ese pilasopta: da sxvata enisa k’acni kartvelta ek’icxoden: da ac’ me
mepeman mepetaman vaxt’ang es sp’arsuli aiati romel ars kmnulebis codnis
c’igni:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>ziji tala masala da sxva
okmebis c’ignebi vtargmne: mirza abduriza tavrizelis c’ignis k’itxvita da tana
shec’evnita: da st’rolabic kartulad gamovighe: nu uk’ue isc’avon da c’adier
iq’vnen pilosoposobisad: da inebon da sheasrulon kartulisa enita pilaposoba da
gamoighon: da chemtvisac shendobis mokene var rametu sakmetagan sacnaurars
vitarmed mravalni ch’irni misaxvan ama c’ignta zeda: da arca tu mepobisa
msaxureba damik’lies.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
“The prophet David says, ‘I said in
my alarm that every man is a liar,’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn25" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[25]</span></span></a>
and the Lord himself says, ‘Nobody is good except God alone.’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn26" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[26]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is why there is a command—since
every man is a liar, do not separate.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn27" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[27]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But nobody except those He has chosen
can correctly recognize the deeds of the Lord, and neither can anyone recognize
the truth, without finding the lie in it. But to many He gave wisdom and
understanding, and He who is honorable gave them mercy, that they might not do
dishonorable deeds, and they worked hard, and made haste to understand what He
created, and discerned the many sciences and studies of philosophers—and the
study of the stars is one of these.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Now
Georgia has been ravaged by enemies many times, so there has been no study of
philosophical learning in the Georgian language, and for this reason Georgians
have been ridiculed by those who spoke other languages.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>And
now, I, Vakht’ang, King of Kings, have translated this Persian “Aiati,”<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn28" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[28]</span></span></a>
which is the Book of the Knowledge of Creation, and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zij-i Tala<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn29" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[29]</span></span></a></i>
material, and books of other documents, using Mirza Abduriza Tavrizeli’s
analysis of the book and his collaboration.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>And I have also explained the (use of the) astrolabe in
Georgian.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn30" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[30]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Should
not those who wish to do so read and study philosophical subjects, and freely
pursue and discourse upon philosophy in the Georgian language?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As
for me, I too am in need of forgiveness, as these endeavors make clear—for I
have faced many troubles because of these books, though I have tried my best to
be a good king.”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
king’s preface is an austere and beautiful literary work in its own right.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In marked contrast to the discursive
energy of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
Vakht’ang VI holds himself aloof from any discussion of disputed details,
opinions, or philosophical alternatives.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He makes no direct reference at all to the theological or philosophical
difficulties associated with astrology. Instead, the king approaches the
question deductively, confining himself to the presentation of a single elegant
argument founded upon the Scriptures. That is part of the king’s genius—he
manages to establish his position without even entering into the debate, by means
of a deductive argument which all but compels assent! His reasoning may be
summarized as follows: since “every man is a liar,” it follows that all human
sciences are a mixture of truth and error.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is true of astrology as it is of other philosophical
subjects.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, with God’s help
we may hope to distinguish truth from lies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Therefore, we are justified in studying this subject as long
as we look to God for the wisdom to make these distinctions.<a href="" name="OLE_LINK5"></a><a href="" name="OLE_LINK6"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK5;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The king concludes with true Christian
humility, acknowledging the possibility that he himself may have strayed from
the truth in preparing this treatise.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK6;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK5;">Vakht’ang
VI clearly recognized that astrology was problematical, but was willing to
concede that there might be truth in it.</span></span> Indeed, it appears that
the king had a very high regard for this “mixed” science, since it was one of
only two secular works that he published (the other being his edition of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vepxis T’q’aosani</i>). It is interesting to
note that, of the three references to Magi (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">magoi</i>)
which appear in the New Testament, the Magi (“Wise Men”) of Matthew 2 are
described very positively, while the other two (Acts 8, Acts 13) were heretics
and sorcerers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In light of this,
the king’s reasoning closely parallels that of John Gadbury: “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abusum non tollit usum</i>, is the Lawyer’s
Rule: The abuse of a thing ought not to abrogate or impeach the lawful use
thereof” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Genethlialogia</i>, 1658, “To
the Reader”).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn31" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[31]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: .5in;">
Several passages
in the king’s preface raise interesting questions. When he states that “there
has been no study of philosophical learning in the Georgian language, and for
this reason Georgians have been ridiculed by those who spoke other languages,”
could this be a veiled reference to the earlier <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>? It is my hypothesis that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> was prepared in collaboration with Roman
Catholic missionaries, using sources in Latin and Italian. Moreover, its tables
of houses (48v-54r) were copied directly from those found in Ottavio Beltrano’s
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, and while they
are more or less accurate for latitudes in the Caucasus, the tables in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> are characterized by
a number of grievous mistakes which Vakht’ang VI (who himself compiled such
tables based on his own astronomical observations)<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn32" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[32]</span></span></a>
would have recognized immediately if he had ever perused that work. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: .5in;">
It is also
interesting to speculate as to the nature of the “troubles” which the king
experienced because of these books—did the Persians object to his <span style="line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">publishing Christian books
despite his nominal conversion to Islam?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Was he referring to difficulties associated with the task of publishing
them? Or does this statement pertain specifically to the king’s work with
astronomical and astrological books?</span> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<u>Concluding Observations<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>There
is a close verbal similarity between the openings of these two works: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> begins with the
words <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">c’mida iob bdzanebs</i> (“Blessed
Job says”), while the preface to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis
Codnis C’igni</i> begins with the words <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">it’q’vis
c’inasc’armet’q’veli davit</i> (“The prophet David says”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Clearly, these works share in a common
rhetorical tradition in which the opening appeal to Scripture is of the
greatest importance to all that follows.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Apart
from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>’s citation
of II Corinthians 12:2, which closely parallels Arriaga’s use of the same
passage, the Scriptures cited by these Georgian writers are different from
those typically used by the Western defenders of astrology, and are used to
construct unique and highly original arguments.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
procedure of the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> is similar to Arriaga’s, using biblical passages inductively to
validate various specific philosophical and cosmological ideas; in contrast,
Vakht’ang VI uses the Scriptures very cautiously as the basis of a deductive
argument, avoiding any discussion of specific details.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; text-indent: .5in;">
These texts were
products of a period of national revitalization which involved the
incorporation into the Georgian <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Weltanschauung</i>
of an array of cultural influences from both East and West.<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span>A study of these books and
the sources they used reveals several lines of cultural transmission, a process
closely associated with the phenomenon of cultural revitalization.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Vakht’ang VI alludes to the fact that
“Georgia has been ravaged by enemies,” and it is paradoxically this same
intercultural dynamic which gave rise to the “Silver Age” of Georgian culture
during the closing years of Georgia’s national independence.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="color: black;">Works Cited<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Abuladze, Tamar. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vaxt’ang
Meekvsis Mtargmnelobiti Moghvasheoba. </i>Tbilisi:<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Mecniereba,
1998.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Adnan Adıvar,
Abdülhak.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“‘Ali b. Muhammad
al-Kushdji.” In </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black;">The Encyclopaedia of<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Islam.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>New Edition.</span></i><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Leiden: E.J.
Brill, 1960.</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">Arriaga, Rodrigo de.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cursus
Philosophicus</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Antverpiae: Ex
Officina Plantiniana<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Balthasaris
Moreti, 1632.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Universidad de La
Rioja.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Biblioteca Digital de<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Derecho.
</span><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.0pt;"><a href="http://biblioteca.unirioja.es/digibur/obras/228826_0.html">http://biblioteca.unirioja.es/digibur/obras/228826_0.html</a>
(accessed March 14, 2009).</span><span style="color: black;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bjornstad, James, and Shildes Johnson. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Star Signs & Salvation in the Age of Aquarius.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></i>Minneapolis:
Dimension Books, 1971.</div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
Dear, Peter Robert. Discipline & Experience: The
Mathematical Way in the Scientific<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Revolution
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995.</div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
Gadbury, John. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Genethlialogia
or, The Doctrine of Nativities, Containing the Whole Art<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>of
Directions and Annual Revolutions.</i> London: Printed by James Cottrell for<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Giles
Calvert, William Larnar, and Daniel White, 1658. Paolo Alexandre Silva.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Astrologia
Medieval.<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><a href="http://www.astrologiamedieval.com/tabelas/John_Partridge_Opus_Reformatum.pdf">http://www.astrologiamedieval.com/tabelas/John_Partridge_Opus_Reformatum.pdf</a>
(accessed<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>September
29, 2008).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Grant, Edward. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Planets,
Stars and Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos 1200-1687</i>. Cambridge:<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Cambridge
University Press, 1996.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">Karloutsos, Father Alexander.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Astrology is Astrolatry.” Greek
Orthodox Archdiocese<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>of
America, 2009. </span><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.0pt;"><a href="http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith7066">http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith7066</a>
(accessed January 15, 2009).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">Lake, Kirsopp, trans.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Apostolic Fathers</i>, volume 1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>University
Press, 1977.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">Migne, Jacques-Paul, ed. </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">Patrologiae
cursus completus: omnium SS. patrum, doctorum<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>scriptorumque
ecclesiasticorum; sive latinorum, sive graecorum.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Patrologia<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Latina</span></i><span style="color: #333333; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt;">, vol. 1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Turnhout, 1844.</span><span style="color: black;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
New Advent. “Synod of Laodicea (4<sup>th</sup> Century).”<span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"> <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3806.htm">http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3806.htm</a><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>(accessed
March 19, 2009).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
Partridge, John. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opus
Reformatum: or, a Treatise of Astrology.</i> London: Awnsham and<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>John
Churchill, 1693). Paolo Alexandre Silva. Astrologia Medieval.<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><a href="http://www.astrologiamedieval.com/tabelas/John_Partridge_Opus_Reformatum.pdf">http://www.astrologiamedieval.com/tabelas/John_Partridge_Opus_Reformatum.pdf</a></span>
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">(accessed<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>October
18, 2008).</span></div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
Ramesey, William. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Astrologia
Restaurata; or, Astrologie Restored: Being an<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Introduction
to the General and Chief Part of the Language of the Stars.</i> London:<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Robert
White, 1653.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Paolo Alexandre
Silva. Astrologia Medieval.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><a href="http://www.astrologiamedieval.com/tabelas/Astrology_Restored_by_William_Ramsey.pdf">http://www.astrologiamedieval.com/tabelas/Astrology_Restored_by_William_R<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>msey.pdf</a><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>(accessed
September 29, 2008).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">Simonia, Irakli. </span>“Little
Known Aspects of the History of Georgian Astronomy.”<span style="color: black;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Journal<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>of
Astronomical History and Heritage</i> 4(1) (2001): 59-73.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Spruit, Leen. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Species
Intelligibilis: From Perception to Knowledge</i>. Leiden: Brill, 1995.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Tester, Jim. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A History
of Western Astrology.</i> Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press,<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>1987.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">Torres Villarroel, Diego de.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Remarkable Life of Don Diego; being the<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Autobiography
of Diego de Torres Villarroel.</i><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Translated by William C.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Atkinson.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>London:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Folio Society, 1958.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">Torres Villarroel, Diego de.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vida
de Diego de Torres Villarroel</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Edited by Russell P.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Sebold.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Madrid: Taurus Ediciones, 1985.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Toumanoff, Cyril.
“Georgia, Church in Ancient.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The New Catholic Encyclopedia</i>, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">2d ed. Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2003.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[1]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Kirsopp Lake, trans., <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Apostolic Fathers</i>, vol. 1
(Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1977), 312-13.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[2]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">New Advent, “Synod of
Laodicea (4<sup>th</sup> Century)”, <a href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3806.htm">http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3806.htm</a>
(accessed March 19, 2009).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[3]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Jim Tester, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A History
of Western Astrology</i> (Woodbridge, Suffolk:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Boydell Press, 1987), 55. It is interesting to note that
this canon is now interpreted by the Eastern Orthodox Church as necessitating
the excommunication of “<span style="color: black;">people who make, sell, buy or
wear the zodiac signs” (Father Alexander Karloutsos, “Astrology is Astrolatry,”
Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America, 2009, ¶6, <a href="http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith7066">http://www.goarch.org/ourfaith/ourfaith7066</a>
(accessed January 15, 2009).</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[4]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Migne, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Patrologia Latina</i> I.672</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[5]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Tester, 126.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[6]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Tester, 152.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[7]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">James Bjornstad and Shildes
Johnson, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Star Signs & Salvation in
the Age of Aquarius</i> (Minneapolis: Dimension Books, 1971), 87.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[8]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Diego de Torres Villarroel, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vida de Diego de Torres Villarroel</i>, ed. Russell P. Sebold
(Madrid:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Taurus Ediciones, 1985).
This work is available in English as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Remarkable Life of Don Diego; being the Autobiography of<span style="color: black;"> Diego de Torres Villarroel</span></i><span style="color: black;">, trans.
William C. Atkinson (London: The Folio Society, 1958).</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[9]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">William Ramesey, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Astrologia Restaurata; or, Astrologie
Restored: Being an Introduction to the General and Chief Part of the Language
of the Stars</i> (London: Robert White, 1653), 21-22.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Paolo Alexandre Silva, Astrologia Medieval, <a href="http://www.astrologiamedieval.com/tabelas/Astrology_Restored_by_William_Ramsey.pdf">http://www.astrologiamedieval.com/tabelas/Astrology_Restored_by_William_Ramsey.pdf</a>
(accessed September 29, 2008).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[10]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">John Partridge, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Opus Reformatum: or, a Treatise of Astrology</i>
(London: Awnsham and John Churchill, 1693), viii-ix. Paolo Alexandre Silva,
Astrologia Medieval, <a href="http://www.astrologiamedieval.com/tabelas/John_Partridge_Opus_Reformatum.pdf">http://www.astrologiamedieval.com/tabelas/John_Partridge_Opus_Reformatum.pdf</a>
(accessed October 18, 2008).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[11]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">I am extremely grateful to
Dr. Buba Kudava, Director of the National Centre of Manuscripts, for allowing
me to study this manuscript, and providing me with digital reproductions of
substantial parts of it.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[12]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Irakli Simonia, “Little
Known Aspects of the History of Georgian Astronomy,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage</i> 4(1) (2001), 59-73.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[13]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Simonia, 68-70.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[14]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Cyril Toumanoff, “</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Georgia, Church in Ancient,”
in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The New Catholic Encyclopedia</i>, 2d
ed.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[15]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Leen Spruit, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Species Intelligibilis: From Perception to
Knowledge</i> (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 327-30.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[16]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Rodrigo de Arriaga, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cursus Philosophicus</i> (Antverpiae: Ex Officina Plantiniana
Balthasaris Moreti, 1632), 499.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Universidad de La Rioja.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Biblioteca Digital de Derecho. <a href="http://biblioteca.unirioja.es/digibur/obras/228826_0.html">http://biblioteca.unirioja.es/digibur/obras/228826_0.html</a>
(accessed March 14, 2009). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[17]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Simonia, 69.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[18]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Peter Robert Dear, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Discipline & Experience: The
Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution</i> (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1995), 85.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[19]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Arriaga’s cosmological ideas
are discussed by Edward Grant in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Planets,
Stars and Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos 1200-1687</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1996), 349-52.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[20]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Simonia, 70.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[21]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Tamar Abuladze, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vaxt’ang Meekvsis Mtargmnelobiti
Moghvasheoba</i> (Tbilisi: Mecniereba, 1998), 29-35.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[22]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Simonia, 70-71.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[23]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Abuladze, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">op. cit.</i></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[24]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">I am indebted to Nino
Khonelidze for substantial parts of this translation.</span></div>
</div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[25]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Psalm 115:2 (116:11):</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.0pt;">
“</span></b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">I said in
my alarm, “All men are liars.’”</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn26" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[26]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">Mark 10:18b; also Luke
18:19b: </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.0pt;">“</span></b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">No one is good except God alone.”</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn27" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[27]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">This is perhaps an allusion to Matthew</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"> 13:28-29:</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.0pt;">
“</span></b><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">The slaves
said to him, `Do you want us, then, to go and gather them up?' But he said,
`No; for while you are gathering up the tares, you may uproot the wheat with
them.’” </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn28" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[28]</span></span></span></a><span style="color: black; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">This curious
word is simply a Georgian transliteration of the Arabic <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hay’a(t)</i>, meaning “geometry,” as Tamar Abuladze kindly pointed out
to me.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because the bulk of the
text and illustrations of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis
Codnis C’igni</i> pertain to the motions and cycles of the Moon, I first
assumed that the work was a translation of ‘Ali Qushji’s </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Hall ashkal al-Qamar</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> (“Explanation of Lunar Phenomena”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For ‘Ali Qushji’s works, see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Encyclopaedia of Islam, New Edition</i>
(Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1979), I.393.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn29" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[29]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Persian <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">z</i></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ī</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">j-i </span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ṭ</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ā</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">li‘</span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"> (“table of ascension”);
tables of houses.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn30" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[30]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">One of <span style="color: black;">Vakhtang VI's
astrolabes may still be seen at the Georgian History Museum, Tbilisi (Simonia,
71).<o:p></o:p></span></span></div>
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<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn31" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[31]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">John Gadbury, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Genethlialogia or, The Doctrine of
Nativities, Containing the Whole Art of Directions and Annual Revolutions</i>
(London: Printed by James Cottrell for Giles Calvert, William Larnar, and
Daniel White, 1658). Paolo Alexandre Silva. Astrologia Medieval. <a href="http://www.astrologiamedieval.com/tabelas/John_Partridge_Opus_Reformatum.pdf">http://www.astrologiamedieval.com/tabelas/John_Partridge_Opus_Reformatum.pdf</a>
(accessed September 29, 2008).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn32" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[32]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Simonia, 71.</span></div>
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<!--EndFragment-->Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-25565674721250722222012-01-28T21:19:00.001-08:002012-01-28T21:19:27.719-08:00The Mirror That Does Not Reflect (2009)<!--StartFragment-->
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The Mirror That Does Not Reflect: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(a 17th-Century Georgian Astronomical
Manuscript) <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i> of Ottavio Beltrano (1639)</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Timothy P. Grove, Biola University<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>International
Conference in Honor of the 50<sup>th</sup> Anniversary <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">of the National Centre of Manuscripts</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman";"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Tbilisi, Republic of Georgia <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>21
October 2009<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"> is a unique astronomical manuscript preserved
at the National Centre of Manuscripts in Tbilisi.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The manuscript [Q 867], comprising 126 quarto pages, is
beautifully written in black and red ink and contains numerous hand-drawn
illustrations. This manuscript </span>presents a fascinating miscellany of information
on a number of subjects. It has been described and its contents summarized by
Irakli Simonia.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn1" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[1]</span></span></a> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">No title appears either on the binding or at
the beginning of the text—the title <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> ("zodiacal chiromancy") was apparently suggested by
the first illustration (10v) of a human hand labeled with the principal lines
used in palmistry, along with their planetary associations; indeed, the third
chapter (10r – 13v) is a short treatise on astrological chiromancy.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Much of this manuscript is clearly original, including the extremely
interesting preface.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, a
careful study of the text reveals that its writer drew upon </span>several
sources from Western Europe<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">. </span>Internal
evidence suggests that this manuscript was compiled around 1670 with the collaboration
of an Italian speaker (perhaps one of the Capuchin missionaries who were
dispatched to Georgia in 1661).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn2" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[2]</span></span></a>
Several passages point to the input of an Italian speaker, as on 36v, where the
Latin word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">caelum</i> is transcribed as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chelum</i>, or on 46v, where four parts of a
diagram are labeled with the letters <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ani,
bani, chini, doni</i> (i.e. A, B, C, D; where the Georgian convention would be <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ani, bani, gani, doni</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In both cases, the use of the Georgian
letter <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chini </i>reflects a uniquely
Italian pronunciation of the letter C.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It seems likely that one of the Italian missionaries arrived with a
collection of recent books in Latin and Italian.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As we shall see, at least three of these books were used in
the compilation of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>.</div>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">The opening
chapter of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> (1r –
5r) begins with an allusion to Job 37:7 (“He seals the hand of every man”),
which the author connects to the practice of palmistry—</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">codinaroba romelsa ec’odebis latinurad
k’iromancia </i>(“the knowledge which is called Chiromancy in Latin”). Here we
have the first indication that parts of this work are based on Western sources.</div>
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<u>1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rodrigo
de Arriaga’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cursus Philosophicus</i>
(1632)<o:p></o:p></u></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The writer proceeds to a very
interesting discussion of the structure of the heavens, and in this connection <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">(1v) cites a certain “nobleman” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">munajibi</i>) named “Ariaga,” who he says
was “of Arabian race” (</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">romeli iq’o
arabi guarita</i><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">),</b> and who is
supposed to have addressed various questions as to the number, nature, and
composition of the heavens.<span style="color: red;"> </span>This person was none
other than the Jesuit Rodrigo de Arriaga Mendo (1592-1662), a professor at
Valladolid and Salamanca, and at Prague from 1625.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn3" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[3]</span></span></a>
In light of this, the Georgian writer’s comment that he was “of Arabian race”
is quite puzzling.<span style="color: red;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Arriaga’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cursus Philosophicus</i> (Antwerp, 1632) was extremely influential.
Arriaga was one of the first philosophers to take cognizance of Galileo’s
telescopic discoveries and to examine their philosophical implications: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">non multis autem ab hinc annis propter
quorumdam Mathematicorum & Astronomorum diligentes observationes, quas,
novis exquisitisque instrumentis adiuti, invenerunt, & praecipue tubi
optici subsidio, caelorum structura penitus a nonnullis inverti coepit</i>. (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Disputatio Unica Caelestis</i>, sectio iii).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn4" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[4]</span></span></a>
[“Not many years ago, because of the careful observations of a number of
astrologers and astronomers which they made with the aid of excellent new
instruments, especially the telescope, some began to completely overturn the
structure of the heavens.”] This statement accords very well with the known
concerns of the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>, who makes reference to Galileo’s telescopic discoveries in
chapter eight (21v).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn5" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[5]</span></span></a> Arriaga
refers to a number of recent scientific discoveries, including the four
satellites of Jupiter (iii.3.25), sunspots (iii.3.28), and the diurnal
visibility of stars from the bottom of a mineshaft<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(vi.68). In the 5<sup>th</sup> edition of his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cursus Philosophicus</i> (1669), Arriaga
describes how he replicated Galileo’s experiments with falling bodies by
dropping heavy objects from the cupola of the Prague Cathedral and from the
parapets of Karlstein Castle.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn6" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[6]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
specific passage referenced by the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> is the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Disputatio
Unica Caelestis</i>, found on pages 497-508 of the 1632 edition of Arriaga’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cursus Philosophicus</i>. Here, Arriaga
addresses a number of questions: the composition and uniformity of the heavens,
their number and their motions, whether the heavens are animate or inanimate,
whether they are corruptible or incorruptible, and whether they are solid or
fluid.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn7" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[7]</span></span></a>
These correspond more or less to the questions inventoried in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> and attributed to
“Ariaga”: whether the heavens are composed of four elements, whether they are
spiritual, whether they are perfect, whether they are solid, whether they are
self-illuminated, and whether they are manifold.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
Both Arriaga and the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> frequently quote the Scriptures to support
their ideas. One of the verses cited in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> (II Corinthians 12:2) is also cited by Arriaga in the section
entitled <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De numero caelorum</i>
(iv.1.48), in connection with the opinion of St. Ambrose and others that there
are three heavens. Arriaga ends by rejecting this opinion, concluding that the
heavens number not three or eleven, but nine (iv.2.52). Still, it seems likely
that the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>
was following Arriaga in bringing this passage to bear on the same question.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>After
this reference to Arriaga comes a fascinating but difficult passage, in which
the writer seems to be stating that the celestial spheres are self-similar in
the same way as an object and its reflection in a mirror. Thus, the earth is
like a mirror which reflects the heavens, and hell lies in the depths of this
same mirror. Hell is located at the center of the earth, and comprises four
concentric circles, the second of which is designated “Limbo”—a Roman Catholic
idea which again suggests Western influence. The writer proceeds to delineate
the precise diameters of each of these circles in Georgian leagues (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">aghaji</i>), as well as a value of for the
diameter of the earth itself, according to “the earth-measurers who in Latin
are called Cosmographers” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kueq’nis
mzomelni romelsa ec’odebis latinurad k’ozmograpini</i>).<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Later, in the context of a
discussion of the probable dimensions of the sphere of the Moon, the writer
concludes, <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">“but we concur with Ariaga
the Arab that the moon is one-third the size of the earth” (3v<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">: magram chven vimoc’mebt ariaga arabsa rom
mtovare ars kueq’anis mesamedis odeni</i>). Arriaga’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cursus Philosophicus</i> does touch briefly on this idea, which arises
from the apparent size of the earth’s shadow during a lunar eclipse (</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Disputatio Unica Caelestis</i>, <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">v.55).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">2. An
Unidentified Astrological Work<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Another source, as yet unidentified, provided the basis of the
planetary descriptions found on pages 5r – 9r. </span><span style="color: black;">We
know this because the top half of page 7r has been left blank, with a note in
the margin:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">zoharis ambavi ak’lda dedans</i> (“description of Venus is missing from
the original”).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="color: black;">3. Ottavio Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> (1639)<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
One <span style="color: black;">of
the more interesting features of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> is its cryptic reference to a western philosopher named
“Beltrano,” whom the author compares to Aristotle and praises in the highest
terms: </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">beltrano munajibi iq’o erti
vinme aseti mecnieri rome chuns dros amistana mecnieri da gonieri ar gamosula
tu es arist’ot’elis dros q’opiliq’o imasac ars axsenebda da aman q’ovltatvin
ase gvarad gaadvila es varsk’ulavt mricxveloba tu romels c’elic’ads romels
tveshi romels k’virashi romels dgheshi romels zhamshi romels burjze romels
nac’ilshi dabneldeba mze anu mtovare gvauc’q’ebs </i>(30r) [<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">"The noble Beltrano was a scientist who
for wisdom has no equal in our times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Had he lived at the time of Aristotle, then the latter would have paled
before him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He greatly simplified
astronomy, and could determine in which year, in which month, in which week, on
what day, in which degree, in what constellation, and in what minute eclipses
of the Sun and Moon would take place."]<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn8" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[8]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="color: black;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
I have succeeded in identifying
this person as Ottavio Beltrano (fl. ca.1620-1671), a printer, bookseller, and
miscellaneous writer who worked in Cosenza, Naples, Terranova, and Ancona.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> (“perpetual almanac”) was first published in
1639, and proved to be an extremely popular work in Italy, where it appeared in
numerous editions throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> was itself based upon
the earlier <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Almanacco Perpetuo di Rutilio Benincaso</span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"> (1593). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">A careful
comparison of the two texts has established that several sections of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> incorporate both
text and illustrations drawn from an early edition of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>These include page 30r, the series of eclipses (31r – 35r), pages 36v
and 46r – 47v, the Tables of Houses (48v – 54r), the horoscope for 21 June 1635
(58v – 59r), the Perpetual Almanac (60v – 74r), and additional material on
pages 76v and 99v.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">In its original form, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> presented a 28-year “perpetual almanac” covering the years 1652
through 1679, along with three further 28-year cycles (1680-1707, 1708-1735,
1736-1763). At some point, strips of paper were glued over the original dates,
in order to update the almanac by 84 years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It appears that the latest date listed (74r) corresponds to
the year 1847.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> remained in constant
use throughout the entire 18th century and probably into the 19th. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">It appears probable that the manuscript was written during the second
half of the 17th century and that its writer made use of an early edition of
Beltrano’s almanac which began with the 1652-1679 series.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Another indication that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> was written during
the 17<sup>th</sup> century is that the eclipses illustrated on pages 31r – 35r
are those of 1652-1664; this is the same series of eclipses described by
Beltrano.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">The Georgian writer’s adaptations of Beltrano’s illustrations are
extremely interesting, involving numerous mirror-reversals and other mysterious
changes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A comparison of the
illustrations in the two works reveals that the Georgian illustrator has made
no fewer than 25 left-right reversals; in most cases, only certain elements of
Beltrano’s illustrations have been reversed, while in a few cases the entire
composition has been subjected to a mirror-reversal. It may be that these
mysterious reversals have something to do with the several references to a
“mirror” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sark’e</i>) in the opening
chapter of the manuscript.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Some of the illustrations found in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> demonstrate remarkable innovations in the iconography of
astrological representations—innovations which may be unique to this
manuscript. For example, one of the first things that caught my eye was the
curious representation of the crab (Cancer) on page 68r, with a crescent-shaped
head.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I have made a careful study
of the iconography of the sign Cancer, as portrayed in numerous books and
manuscripts from Europe and the Near East, but can find no precedent for this.
However, </span>since the moon rules the sign of Cancer, it seems probable that
this highly original variant was intended to suggest a crescent moon.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Another very interesting anomaly is
the fact that both Venus and Saturn are portrayed holding mirrors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In both cases, the mirror is held in
the figure’s left hand. While Venus is often conventionally represented as a
woman holding a mirror, I can find no precedent in the astrological literature
for Saturn holding<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a mirror.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> portray Saturn in this way. <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Not only are both Venus and Saturn holding mirrors, but they appear on
facing pages (69r – 70v)—another sort of mirroring.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</span></i><span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"> is truly a unique and mysterious book.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It raises many questions which remain
unanswered.</span> When viewed alongside Vakht’ang VI’s Georgian translation of
a work by ‘Ali Qushji of Samarqand (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis
Codnis C’igni</i>, 1721), the use of Western sources by the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> reveals that
Georgian intellectuals of this period were open to a complex network of
cultural and scientific influences from both the East and the West.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[1]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Irakli Simonia, “Little
Known Aspects of the History of Georgian Astronomy,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage</i> 4(1) (2001), 59-73.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[2]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Cyril Toumanoff, “</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Georgia, Church in Ancient,”
in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The New Catholic Encyclopedia</i>, 2d
ed.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[3]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Leen Spruit, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Species Intelligibilis: From Perception to
Knowledge</i> (Leiden: Brill, 1995), 327-30.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[4]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt;">Rodrigo de Arriaga, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cursus Philosophicus</i> (Antverpiae: Ex Officina Plantiniana
Balthasaris Moreti, 1632), 499. Universidad de La Rioja. Biblioteca Digital de
Derecho. <a href="http://biblioteca.unirioja.es/digibur/obras/228826_0.html">http://biblioteca.unirioja.es/digibur/obras/228826_0.html</a>
(accessed March 14, 2009). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[5]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Simonia, 69.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[6]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Peter Robert Dear, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Discipline & Experience: The
Mathematical Way in the Scientific Revolution</i> (Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1995), 85.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[7]</span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Arriaga’s cosmological ideas
are discussed by Edward Grant in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Planets,
Stars and Orbs: The Medieval Cosmos 1200-1687</i> (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1996), 349-52.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[8]</span></span></span></a><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Simonia, 69.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</div>
</div>
<!--EndFragment-->Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-62203106088918207802012-01-28T21:14:00.001-08:002012-01-28T21:20:14.937-08:00The Italian Connection (2009)<!--StartFragment-->
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Italian Connection: Evidence of the Collaboration <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>of Italian Speakers in the
Preparation of Several Manuscripts <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>from the Era
of Vakht’ang VI<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Timothy P. Grove, Biola University<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Scientific Seminar Series<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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Centre of Manuscripts <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Tbilisi, Republic of Georgia <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>15
July 2009</span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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[slide 1]</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The Italian
Connection: Evidence of the Collaboration of Italian speakers in the
Preparation of several manuscripts from the era of Vakht’ang VI<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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[slide 2]</div>
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Timothy P. Grove<br />
Biola University, La Mirada, California</div>
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My academic interests include</div>
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• Astrology</div>
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• Italian Literature</div>
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• Neo-Latin Literature</div>
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• Georgian Astrological Manuscripts</div>
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[slide 3]</div>
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My research here has focused primarily on two manuscripts:</div>
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• Q-867 (“Saet’lo Xiromant’ia”)</div>
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• Q-884 (a short introduction to astronomy attributed to
Vakht’ang VI)</div>
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[slide 4]</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Georgian Use of an
Italian Text<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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• Q-867 (“Saet’lo Xiromant’ia”) refers to a philosopher
named “otaviobeltrano” (13v) and “beltrano” (30r)</div>
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[slide 5]</div>
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• In fact, several sections of this manuscript, including
many of the illustrations, are drawn directly from the <i>Almanacco Perpetuo </i>of
Ottavio Beltrano, first published at Naples in 1639. </div>
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• These include chapter 13 (31r-36r, on eclipses), the
horoscope for 21 June 1635 (58v-59r), and all of chapter 20 (60v-74v, the
perpetual almanac, with its 28 illustrations).</div>
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[slide 6]</div>
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Eclipses (Q-867) [illustration omitted]</div>
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[slide 7]</div>
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Eclipses (<i>Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 61) [illustration
omitted]</div>
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[slide 8]</div>
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Venus and Saturn (pictures and text, Q-867, 69v-70r)
[illustration omitted]</div>
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[slide 9]</div>
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Venus (picture and text, <i>Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 164)
[illustration omitted]</div>
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[slide 10]</div>
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Saturn (picture and text, <i>Almanacco Perpetuo,</i> p. 165)
[illustration omitted]</div>
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[slide 11]</div>
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• Ottavio Beltrano (fl. 1620-1660) was a printer and
miscellaneous writer active in and around Naples. His <i>Almanacco Perpetuo </i>was extremely popular and went
through numerous editions. It
continued to be printed even into the 19<sup>th</sup> century!</div>
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[slide 12]</div>
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This text was also widely distributed in Georgia</div>
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Several other manuscripts either copy it or incorporate
parts of it. These include:</div>
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• H-1658 (possibly from the late 17<sup>th</sup> century;
this may actually be the original from which Q-867 was adapted, as the language
is more archaic).</div>
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[slide 13]</div>
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• K-598 (a manuscript at Kutaisi, dated 1768 and probably
written by Georgian exiles in Russia; I learned of this manuscript from Tamara
Abuladze).</div>
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• H-1235 (dated 1817)</div>
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[slide 14]</div>
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• H-94 (19<sup>th</sup> century; an exact copy of the first
half of the book—perhaps the second half was lost or bound separately?)</div>
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• A-889 (19<sup>th</sup> century; incorporates much of the
same material).</div>
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[slide 15]</div>
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The first chapter of the text refers to a phiklosopher named
“ariaga.” This was Rodrigo de
Arriaga, a Spanish Jesuit whose <i>Cursus Philosophicus </i>was first published
at Antwerp in 1632. Several other
writers from Western Europe are also mentioned in the text. It appears likely that an Italian
visitor to Georgia brought several books with him which were used and adapted
by Georgian scholars.</div>
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[slide 16]</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Collaboration of
Italian Speakers<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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• The cosmogram on 36v is captioned as follows:</div>
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<i>Chelum emp’ireum romel ars samotxe<o:p></o:p></i></div>
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*The Latin word coelum (or caelum, “heaven”) is pronounced
as “chelum” only by Italian speakers! </div>
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[slide 17]</div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Chelum emp’ireum romel
ars samotxe</i> [illustration and close-up from K-598 omitted]</div>
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[slide 18]</div>
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• The astrological table on 46v is labeled with the letters <i>ani,
bani, chini, doni</i>. </div>
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• This corresponds to a diagram in Beltrano’s <i>Almanacco
Perpetuo </i>which is labeled A, B, C, D.
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• Again, the letter C is pronounced as “ch” only by Italian
speakers.</div>
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[slide 19]</div>
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Chart of astrological aspects (<i>Almanacco Perpetuo, </i>p.
139) [illustration omitted]</div>
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[slide 20]</div>
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Chart of astrological aspects (Q-867, 46v) [illustration
omitted[]</div>
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[slide 21]</div>
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Q-884 is a short introduction to astronomy compiled by
Vakht’ang VI</div>
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The text contains numerous references to the “Latins”
(lat’inni), along with Georgian transliterations of Italian terms.</div>
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[slide 22]</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Italian terms
transliterated by Vakht’ang VI:<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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GEORGIAN ITALIAN</div>
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• chel dijove celo di Giove</div>
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• chiel di mart’e celo di Marte</div>
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• chielo disole celo del Sole</div>
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[slide 23]</div>
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GEORGIAN ITALIAN</div>
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• chiledi
venere celo di Venere</div>
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• chielo
di merk’vrio celo
di Mercurio</div>
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• solost’ici solstizii</div>
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[slide 24]</div>
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GEORGIAN ITALIAN</div>
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• k’olurodele
k’vinoci coluro
degl’equinozii </div>
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• oridzonte orizonte</div>
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• t’orpik’odi
k’ankro tropico
di Cancro</div>
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[slide 25]</div>
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GEORGIAN ITALIAN</div>
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• t’ropik’o del inverno tropico
del inverno</div>
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• p’oloant
artik’omde polo
antartico</div>
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[slide 26]</div>
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• The careful transliteration of such terms in their Italian
pronunciation clearly points to the input of Italian speakers. </div>
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• The word-division in Georgian (different from the Italian
word-division) demonstrates that the writer did not himself understand Italian
grammar and syntax. His transcriptions of Italian terms were thus based on
their sound, not on their appearance in print.</div>
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• It thus appears that both Q-884 and Q-867 (with its many
variants) were written in collaboration with visitors from Italy, and possibly
in the same milieu.</div>
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<br /></div>Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-55616407688017332642012-01-28T20:48:00.000-08:002012-01-28T20:48:41.732-08:00Conceptions of Space and Time in the Caucasus (2009)<br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Conceptions of Space
and Time among the Georgians and Other Peoples of the Caucasus<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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The
Caucasus is a region of great cultural complexity. About 50 languages are spoken in the Caucasus, including
three linguistic phyla found there and nowhere else: the Kartvelian languages (Georgian, Mingrelian, Svan), the
Northwest Caucasian languages (Abkhaz, Circassian, Kabardan, Ubykh [extinct as
of 1992]), and the Northeast Caucasian languages (about 30 languages, including
Chechen, Avar, and Lezghin). Over
the millennia, the Caucasus became a “haven for remnants in flight,” where
“they might hold their peace against the conquerors . . . and scrape a meager
life, fall to a great obscurity among the nations, and cause some idle men to
wonder on their ancient coming.” (Allen, 1932, p. 27) The region “became a
Noah’s ark of eccentric lives, an undiscriminating reserve of esoteric groups
and customs.” (Karny, 2000, p. xv) Among these “remnants” are the descendants
of a number of famous invading hordes, including the Ossetians (a remnant of
the Alans, who arose from the Sarmatians, who arose from the Scythians), the
Avars (connected to the Huns), the Balkars (a remnant of the Bulgars), the
Kalmyks (the only Buddhists in Europe), and the Tats (“Mountain Jews,” possibly
a remnant of the Ten Lost Tribes).
The Caucasus may be described as an ethnographic museum; beneath a
veneer of nominal Christianity or Islam, most of the peoples of the Caucasus
preserve a rich array of ancient pagan customs.</div>
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The
present paper is a preliminary attempt to make sense of some of this rich
cultural material, as expressed in folklore and in a number of literary works,
and with particular attention to their assumptions about Space and Time. Such conceptions are of the greatest
importance to the specific focus of my research, the practice of Astrology in
the Caucasus, as I seek to identify and describe the astrological ideas which
appear to be uniquely associated with that region.</div>
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Owing
to the complex history of the Caucasus, it is very difficult to sort out the
various streams of cultural influence, which include indigenous pagan ideas as
well as later Zoroastrian, Islamic Persian, Turkish, Arab, Central Asian,
Indian, and Russian influences, as well as ideas brought to the Caucasus by
merchants, missionaries, and printed books from Western Europe. The identification of specific cultural
influences is made still more difficult by the fact that over many centuries, a
general “Caucasian” culture came into existence, with its “North Caucasian”
(predominantly Muslim) and “South Caucasian” (mainly Georgian, Christian)
subdivisions. Thus, many of the
customs, deities, and superstitions of the Chechens are shared by the
Circassians far to the west, since both fall within the North Caucasian
cultural area. It is difficult,
often impossible, to ascertain the precise origin of many of these specific
ideas and practices.</div>
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This
semester, I have done a great deal of reading and research on the cultures, peoples,
and languages of the Caucasus. The
preliminary results of this study are presented here; there is a great deal
more to be done with this—there are hundreds of books and articles (including
much material in Georgian and Russian) on the history, language, and culture of
the dozens of unique ethnic groups which inhabit the Caucasus. The present paper presents a
preliminary synthesis of only a small fraction of this material. Parts of this paper have been fully
developed, while other parts have been left in outline form. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> The unfinished sections are indicated by italics.</i></div>
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<u>The Caucasian Linguistic Phyla, and Possible Remote
Connections</u></div>
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Linguists
have divided the indigenous languages of the Caucasus into three phyla: the
Kartvelian languages, the Northwest Caucasian languages, and the Northeast
Caucasian languages. In the past,
it was often assumed that all three of these were branches of a single
macro-family. More recently, it
has become apparent that while the Northeast Caucasian and Northwest Caucasian
phyla are probably connected, there is no genetic relation between these and
the Kartvelian phylum; their observed similarities are the result of areal
linguistic influences. In addition
to these indigenous phyla, several other linguistic phyla are represented in
the Caucasus: the Ossetians speak
an Indo-European language; the Kalmyk language is related to Mongolian, while
the Azeris, Kumyks, Balkars, Karachays, and Nogays speak Turkic languages. The present discussion is limited to
the three indigenous phyla.</div>
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1. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Kartvelians</i></b> occupy the region south of the Caucasus range. There are four Kartvelian languages:
Georgian (about 4 million speakers), Mingrelian, Laz, and Svan (the most
archaic of them, preserving many proto-Kartvelian features). Svan is thought to have diverged from
the rest around 2000 B.C., and is spoken today by about 40,000 people in two
remote valleys in northwestern Georgia).
The Kartvelian nation is designated by the term “Meshech” in the Old
Testament, and were known to the Greeks as “Moschoi.” Meshech was a son of Japheth (Gen. 10:2, I Chron. 1:5), and
Meshech is associated with Gog and Magog (Ezekiel 38-39). Ezekiel provides some interesting
cultural details about Meshech: “Javan, Tubal and Meshech, they were your
traders; with the lives of men and vessels of bronze they paid for your
merchandise” (Ezek. 27:13). This
statement is of great interest because the Caucasus was an early center of
metallurgy, and was an important source of slaves from ancient times until well
into the 19<sup>th</sup> century. “Meshech,
Tubal and all their hordes are there; their graves surround them. All of them
were slain by the sword uncircumcised, though they instilled their terror in
the land of the living” (Ezek. 32:26).
During the first millennium B.C., the Kartvelians were centered in
eastern Anatolia; they gradually migrated northeast into their present
location. The kingdoms of Colchis
and Iberia were established during the 6<sup>th</sup> century B.C.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Xenophon (5<sup>th</sup> century B.C.) gives a very interesting account
of the Mossynoeci, a branch of the Kartvelians: “<span style="font-family: Times-Roman;">The following description will apply to the
majority of them: the cities were on an average ten miles apart, some more,
some less; but so elevated is the country and intersected by such deep clefts
that if they chose to shout across to one another, their cries would be heard
from one city to another. When, in the course of their march, they came upon a
friendly population, these would entertain them with exhibitions of fatted
children belonging to the wealthy classes, fed up on boiled chestnuts until
they were as white as white can be, of skin plump and delicate, and very nearly
as broad as they were long, with their backs variegated and their breasts
tattooed with patterns of all sorts of flowers. They sought after the women in
the Hellenic army, and would fain have laid with them openly in broad daylight,
for that was their custom. The whole community, male and female alike, were
fair-complexioned and white-skinned. It was agreed that this was the most
barbaric and outlandish people that they had passed through on the whole
expedition, and the furthest removed from the Hellenic customs, doing in a
crowd precisely what other people would prefer to do in solitude, and when
alone behaving exactly as others would behave in company, talking to themselves
and laughing at their own expense, standing still and then again capering
about, wherever they might chance to be, without rhyme or reason, as if their
sole business were to show off to the rest of the world.” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Anabasis</i>, iv)</span><o:p></o:p></div>
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By Greco-Roman times, the Georgians had established the two kingdoms of
Colchis (on the Black Sea coast) and Iberia (inland, comprising the regions of
Kartli and Kakheti). Colchis
exerted an important cultural influence on the Greeks: it was the source and locus of a number
of important myths, including the story of Prometheus (clearly the same as the
Georgian Armazi, who stole fire from the gods and suffered eternal torment on a
mountain peak), and the story of Jason, the Argonauts, the Golden Fleece, and
the sorceress Medea; Colchis was a famed source of poisons, drugs, and
medicinal herbs. The kingdom of
Iberia was founded by P’arnavaz shortly after the death of Alexander the Great;
P’arnavaz is also credited with the invention of the Georgian alphabet. Iberia was invaded by the Romans under
Pompey (1<sup>st</sup> century B.C.), who took the citadel of Gori after a hard
fight.<o:p></o:p></div>
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St. Andrew is supposed to have brought the Gospel to the Georgians, and
according to legend, a Mingrelian bit off one of his fingers while he was
preaching. The Mingrelians were
thereafter known as “finger-eaters.” (Movses Dasxuranci, p. 29n) Despite this unpromising beginning,
Georgia was one of the first Christian nations. St. Nino, a Christian slave,
succeeded in converting king Mirian III of Iberia to Christianity (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i> 337), and the Georgians have been
Christians ever since. Some of the ancient churches in Svaneti date to the 6<sup>th</sup>
century A.D. <o:p></o:p></div>
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No relationship has been discovered between the Kartvelian languages
and any other linguistic phylum.
However, there is evidence to suggest some intriguing possibilities: <o:p></o:p></div>
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A. Classical geographers designated two nations as “Iberians”—the
Georgians (“Eastern Iberians”) and the people who inhabited the Mediterranean
coast of Spain (“Western Iberians”).
These were generally understood to be branches of the same nation. Indeed, this idea persisted into mediaeval
times, when the Georgian kings would occasionally send emissaries or letters to
their “brothers,” the kings of Spain (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">need
to find reference</i>). The extant
inscriptions in the western Iberian language are variously interpreted; there
is some evidence that Iberian was related to Aquitanian (the ancestor of
Basque), but Iberian is generally regarded as a linguistic isolate. The possibility that Iberian is related
to Georgian has not been adequately explored. According to Strabo, the Western Iberians possessed a
written literature that went back 6000 years! (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">reference</i>)<o:p></o:p></div>
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B. Herodotus makes the startling statement that the Georgians (eastern
Iberians) and the Egyptians were the same people. I can make no sense of this at all!<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
C. Several features of the Kartvelian languages suggest a distant
connection to Indo-European.
Probably Kartvelian is to be coordinated with Indo-European as part of
the Nostratic macro-phylum (along with Uralic, Altaic, Dravidian, Semitic, and
Eskimo-Aleut); Kartvelian appears to occupy a node fairly close to Indo-Hittite
and is probably correlated to a number of little-known languages of the
Mediterranean basin including Etruscan, Lemnian, and Pelasgian (the pre-Greek
inhabitants of the Mediterranean)
This suggests a probable connection to Troy and to Tartessus (the biblical
Tarshish), which (according to Greek historians) was founded by refugees from
Troy in 1184 B.C. It is probable
that some of the Sea-Peoples (Peleset [=Philistines], Tjeker, Shekelesh,
Denyen, Weshesh, Shardana, Lukka) who irrupted into the Mediterranean at that
time were of Kartvelian origin.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
D. Most linguists and pre-historians believe that the Kartvelians were
autochthonous to the Caucasus region; Joanna Nichols, however, has suggested
that they originally migrated through Iran from Central Asia (this argument is
based on linguistic evidence of early contact between Kartvelians and
Indo-Europeans) [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">find reference</i>]. Whether or not this is correct, there
are ancient connections between the Kartvelians and the Altai mountains: mtDNA testing has revealed that
haplogroup X2e is found only in the South Caucasus and in the Altai and Kyrgyz
regions; furthermore, “the Altaian sequences are all almost identical,
suggesting that they arrived in the area probably from the South Caucasus more
recently than 5000 BP.” (Haplogroup X (mtDNA), 2009, ¶5) Such a connection is
further substantiated by the fact that ancient helmets from the Caucasus have
been found in the Altai region (Sulimirski, 1970). Herodotus gives an account of the Argippaei, a race of
bald-headed, flat-nosed people who inhabited the Altai mountains; they were
distinct from the Scythians, and spoke a language of their own. The Argippaei were pacifistic, and
occupied themselves with metallurgy.
It appears that the Altai mountains were one of two important sources of
tin during the Bronze Age (the other was the British Isles). Since tin is
required to make bronze, an important trade-route developed: “The Scythians who make this journey
communicate with the inhabitants by means of seven interpreters and seven
languages.” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Persian Wars</i> iv.24).
Finally, genetic and linguistic research suggests that the inhabitants of the
Alborz mountains of Gilan and Mazanderan (on the south coast of the Caspian
Sea) formerly spoke a Kartvelian language and are genetically related to the
Kartvelian peoples. (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">find reference</i>) Thus, it appears likely that the
Kartvelians had cultural connections extending deep into Central Asia. However, it remains uncertain whether
the Kartvelians originated in Central Asia, or whether they penetrated that
region as traders. In this regard,
it is interesting to read Movses Dasxuranci’s (10<sup>th</sup> century) account
of the Huns who settled near Derbent in the Caucasus: “Using horses as burnt
offerings they worship some gigantic savage monster whom they invoke as the god
T’angri Xan, called Aspandiat by the Persians.” (ii.40, p. 156) The ancient
Turks, Huns, Avars, Bulgars, and Magyars were monotheistic and worshipped a
sky-god known (in Turkish) as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tängri qan </i>(“sky blue”), and “in the nineteenth century… Altay shamanists in their
prayers still called on <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Xan Tengere</i>.”(Dickens,
2004, pp. 67-68)–yet another link between the Caucasus and the Altai
region. The Circassians refer to
the Sea of Azov as the “Taingyiz Sea,” which comes from the same Turkic root
(Colarusso, 2002, p. 101).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Northwest Caucasians</i></b> include the Abkhazians, Abazins, Circassians,
Kabardans, and Ubykh (extinct since 1992). The Northwest Caucasian (or Pontic) languages are renowned
for their massive inventory of consonants (Ubykh had more than 80 consonantal
phonemes), which contrasts with a paucity of vowels. While many linguists posit
two phonemic vowels for these languages (e.g. Hewitt, 1979), others maintain
that they in fact contain <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">no</i> phonemic
vowels (Allen, 1965); in other words, all vowels in Abkhaz (for example) are
generated from their consonantal environment according to predictable
rules. These languages are thus
eminently suited to whispered communication, a fact which is probably to be
correlated to the great cultural importance of hunting among the Northwest Caucasian
peoples. All complex and abstract terms in these languages are generated from a
limited inventory of simple roots.
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Another interesting feature of
these languages is the phenomenon of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chakobza</i>,
a secret language formerly used only by men of the princely class in the
context of hunting or preparations for war. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Chakobza
</i>supposedly had “no resemblance” to everyday language (Allen, 1932, p. 30). There are also rumors of a
corresponding secret language used only by females; this language (apparently
no longer used) is described as being monosyllabic and tonal (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">find reference</i>), and was supposedly
understood by women who spoke various languages—perhaps extending across the
entire North Caucasus.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Northwest Caucasian languages
are thought to be related to the ancient Hattic (Hattian) language, which was
spoken in Anatolia before the arrival (ca. 2000 B.C.) of the Hittites. During the first millennium B.C., the
Northwest Caucasian peoples occupied the Black Sea coast of Anatolia, whence
they eventually migrated north into their present location. It appears probable that they can be
traced back to the prehistoric the Çatalhöyük
culture of Anatolia. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Northwest Caucasians were
originally matriarchal. This gave
rise to the Greek account of the Amazons, a nation of female warriors. In fact, their women have always gone
to war alongside the men, even as recently as the 1992-93 Abkhaz-Georgian
conflict. The word “Amazon” appears
to be derived from the Abkhaz word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a-mza</i>
(“moon”). In this connection, I
would like to propose a theory that the Northwest Caucasians are to be
identified with Naamah, the sister of Tubal-Cain (Gen. 4:22).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
John Colarusso has suggested an
ancient genetic link between Northwest Caucasian and Indo-European, as part of
a “Proto-Pontic” macro-phylum. In
any case, there is evidence of ancient linguistic contact between the two
groups: the Circassian name of the “prince of the dead” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">š<sup>y</sup>әmahrәq<sup>w</sup>a</i>) contains an element (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mahrә</i>) which is clearly to the
Indo-European word for death (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mortis,
brotos, Mord</i>) (Colarusso, 2002).
This suggests that the two groups were in contact no later than 2000
BC. Colarusso (2002) also points
out that the being known in Abaza folklore as “Sotrash” is described as having
“eyes like two morning stars” (p. 237).
He proposes an Indo-European etymology for this name, which simply means
“two stars,” yet such an etymology points to a previously-unknown branch of
Indo-European, falling between Iranian and Tocharian. Colarusso suggests that the Northwest Caucasians were in
contact with this linguistic stock at a very early period, long before either
group had migrated to their present location. This may suggest that the Northwest Caucasians originated in
Central Asia.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Until the 19<sup>th</sup> century,
there were several villages in Abkhazia which were inhabited by Negroes. These people have since
disappeared. Most scholars believe
these people were the descendants of slaves imported to the region by the
Ottomans, but it has been suggested that they may have been a remnant of some
ancient migration from Africa—yet another of the mysteries of the Caucasus! (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">find reference</i>)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3. <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Northeast Caucasians </i></b>are perhaps the most interesting of the three
groups. The Northeast Caucasian (a.k.a. Caspian, Nakh-Daghestanian) languages
are divided into two main branches: the Daghestanian languages (about 30
languages, the most conservative and divergent of which are located in southern
Daghestan), and the Nakh (or North Caucasian) languages, comprising Chechen,
Ingush, and Batsbi. The genetic
relationship between the Nakh and Daghestanian branches is now firmly
established. The archaeology of
Daghestan reveals an unbroken cultural continuity going back to Neolithic
times. These people are clearly
the most ancient of the groups still dwelling in the Caucasus, and are
connected to the Kura-Araxes culture (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i>
3400 – 2000 B.C.), who were among the first people on earth to master
metallurgy (arsenical copper). The
related Nakh peoples are believed to be a reflux from the North Caucasian
steppe, into which their ancestors began to spread several thousand years ago
and subsequently retreated. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The languages of the ancient
Hurrians and their descendants, the Urartians, were also genetically related to
Northeast Caucasian phylum (when these are included, it is sometimes known as
the Alarodian phylum). The
Hurrians (Akkadian <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hu-ur-ri</i>; the
“Horites” of the Old Testament) were very important in the Ancient Near East (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i> 2400 – 1200 B.C.). It appears that the still more ancient
Subarians, who were dominant in Mesopotamia during the 4<sup>th</sup>
millennium B.C. (prior to the arrival of the Sumerians), spoke a related
language. The Hurrians founded a number of important states, including Urkesh
(northern Syria, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i> 2250 – 1800
B.C.), Yamhad (northwestern Syria, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i>
1800 – 1550 B.C.), and the Mitanni Empire (northern Syria and Mesopotamia, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">circa</i> 1500 – 1300 B.C.). There were various small Hurrian
(Horite) states in Palestine as well: both the Edomites and the Jebusites were
partially Hurrian (see Genesis 36, Deuteronomy 2; the Horites were the original
inhabitants of Mount Seir). The
Mitanni are notable for having an Indo-Aryan superstrate; although they spoke
the Hurrian language, their rulers and gods bore Indo-Aryan names (kings
Artashumara, Biridashva, Priyamazda, Citrarata, Indaruda, Shativaza, Shubandhu,
Tushratta; gods Mitra, Varuna, Indra, Nasatya); a manual of horsemanship in the
Hurrian language, composed by one Kikkuli, was found in the Hittite archives at
Boghaz-Koy. This text employs
Indo-Aryan numbers <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">aika</i> (“one”), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tera</i> (“three”), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">panza</i> (“five”), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">satta</i>
(“seven”), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">na</i> (“nine”). (Gelb, 1944;
Wilhelm, 1989) It appears that the
Mitanni Hurrians migrated into Mesopotamia from Central Asia, and that their
ruling class was Indo-Aryan (not Indo-Iranian). These facts accord well with a very interesting theory,
first proposed by the Soviet archaeologist Sergei Pavlovich Tolstov (1907-1976), that the Hurrians (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hu-ur-ri</i>) originated from the Central
Asian region of Khwarezm (Chorasmia), which is etymologically related. The names for the ancient Kurds (Gk. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">karduchoi, kurtioi</i>) appear to share this
etymology. Based
on their physical culture, it appears that the Hurrians were not a mountain
people (like the Daghestanians), but a steppe people; indeed, it was the
Hurrians who introduced the two-wheeled chariot to the Near East. Certain
motifs found on objects excavated in Central Asia bear a striking resemblance
to motifs associated with the Hurrians in the Near East. But if the Hurrians came from Central
Asia, how do we explain the fact that their language is part of a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">phylum</i> which is autochthonous to the
Northeast Caucasus? One possible
explanation is suggested by the probable pre-history of the Nakh peoples. If the Nakh indeed migrated into the
North Caucasian steppe and subsequently retreated, it may be that other
Northeast Caucasian peoples migrated into the steppe but did not retreat. Instead, they may have pushed deep into
Central Asia over a period of several thousand years, circling the Caspian and
Aral Seas before reappearing in the Near East by way of Khwarezm and Iran with
their Indo-Aryan rulers. This is my own speculation, and will require much
further study. In this regard, it
will be especially important to establish what node Hurrian-Urartian occupies
in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">stemma</i> Northeast Caucasian
languages. It is especially interesting to note that like the Mitanni, the
Chechens displayed a preference for foreign rulers: “After internecine tribal
conflicts over supremacy, a compromise was reached whereby Kabardian and Kumyk
princes and khans were brought over as chieftains, for it was easier to banish
an imported detached ruler than a native dynast. . . . there were some
instances of foreign princes invited to rule Chechen localities right up to the
middle of the eighteenth century.” (Jaimoukha, 2005, p. 35). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The ancient Caucasian Albanians
were a branch of the Northeast Caucasian linguistic phylum. This kingdom coalesced during the 2<sup>nd</sup>
century B.C., and adopted Christianity during the 4<sup>th</sup> century A.D. A
small corpus of inscriptions and manuscripts is extant in their language. The Caucasian Albanians are now extinct
except for the Christian Udi people of Azerbaijan, who are still Christians and
whose language (with perhaps 5,000 speakers) is the most archaic example of
Northeast Caucasian. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Prior to their conversion, the
Caucasian Albanians were addicted to human sacrifice. “And any of those [temple slaves] who, becoming violently
possessed, wanders alone in the forests, is by the priest arrested, bound with
sacred fetters, and sumptuously maintained during that year, and then led forth
to the sacrifice that is performed in honour of the goddess, and being
anointed, is sacrificed along with other victims. The sacrifice is performed as follows: Some person holding a
sacred lance, with which it is the custom to sacrifice human victims, comes
forward out of the crowd and strikes the victim through the side into the
heart, he being not without experience in such a task; and when the victim
falls, they draw auguries from his fall and declare them before the public; and
when the body is carried to a certain place, they all trample upon it, thus
using it as a means of purification.” (Strabo, Geography, xi.4.7) Movses Dasxuranci, an Armenian writer
of the 10<sup>th</sup> century, describes two murderous sects, the
Finger-Cutters and the Poisoners, which were still active in the region in the
7<sup>th</sup> century. Concerning
the Finger-Cutters, he writes, “And
falling on his face, the young man began to divulge the secrets of the evil
sect: “The devil appears in human
form and orders three ceremonies (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dask’</i>)
to be held, each one comprising three men; these are not to be wounded or
slain, but while still alive are each to have the skin and thumb of the right
hand removed and drawn with the skin over the chest to the little finger of the
left hand; the little finger is then to be cut and broken off inside [the
skin]. The same is to be done to
the feet while the victim is still alive, and then he is to be slain and
flayed, arranged and placed in a basket.” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
History of the Caucasian Albanians</i>, i.18, p. 31) These cults were highly secretive, much like the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">thugs</i> of Northern India (18<sup>th</sup>-19<sup>th</sup>
centuries).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
It is probable that at least some
of the peoples who formerly inhabited the Alborz mountains along the south
coast of the Caspian Sea (including the Caspi from which the sea got its name)
spoke Northeast Caucasian languages.
Strabo makes this connection explicitly: “To the country of the
Albanians belongs also the territory called Caspiane, which was named after the
Caspian tribe, as was also the sea; but the tribe has now disappeared.” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Geography</i>, xi.v.5) Other tribes
inhabiting these mountains in ancient times included the Amardi (or Mardi),
Anariacae (or Parsii), Cadusii, Vitii, Gelae, Tapyri, Cyrtii, Derbices, and
Hyrcanians. Strabo records some of
their customs: “The Derbices
worship Mother Earth; and they do not sacrifice, or eat, anything that is
female; and when men become over seventy years of age they are slaughtered, and
their flesh is consumed by their nearest of kin; but their old women are
strangled and then buried.
However, the men who die under seventy years of age are not eaten, but
only buried. . . . It is a custom of the Tapyri for the men to dress in black
and wear their hair long, and for the women to dress in white and wear their
hair short. They live between the
Derbices and the Hyrcanians. And
he who is adjudged the bravest marries whomever he wishes. The Caspi starve to death those who are
over seventy years of age and place their bodies out in the desert; and then
they keep watch from a distance, and if they see them dragged from their biers
by birds, they consider them fortunate, and if by wild beasts or dogs, less so,
but if by nothing, they consider them cursed by fortune.” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Geography</i>, xi.11.8)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
As mentioned above, there were
formerly also speakers of Kartvelian languages in that region; so it appears
that the Alborz mountains were once a region of great linguistic complexity,
and were a more ancient bastion of two of the Caucasian linguistic <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">phyla</i>, both of which also have ancient
connections to Central Asia. These
connections are reinforced by Herodotus’ account of the Issedones, another
extinct nation whose lands bordered upon the Argippaei of the Altai mountains:
[The Issedones] “are said to have these
customs: when a man's father is dead, all the relations bring cattle to the
house, and then having slain them and cut up the flesh, they cut up also the
dead body of the father of their entertainer, and mixing all the flesh together
they set forth a banquet. His skull however they strip of the flesh and clean
it out and then gild it over, and after that they deal with it as a sacred
thing and perform for the dead man great sacrifices every year. This each son
does for his father, just as the Hellenes keep the day of memorial for the dead.
In other respects however this race also is said to live righteously, and their
women have equal rights with the men.” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Persian
Wars</i>, iv.26)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
There appears to be a distant
genetic relationship between the Northeast Caucasian (Caspian) and Northwest
Caucasian (Pontic) linguistic phyla.
A system of putative sound-correspondences was established by Prince
Nikolai S. Troubetzkoy (1890-1938). Sergei Starostin and Sergei Nikolayev have
attempted to reconstruct Proto-North-Caucasian, and have even published a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">North Caucasian Etymological Dictionary</i>
(1994). However, their results
have been criticized by Johanna Nichols of UC Berkeley (Jaimoukha, 2005). Strabo may shed further light on this
connection: [The Amazons] “have two special months in the spring in which they
go up into the neighbouring mountain which separates them and the Gargarians.
The Gargarians also, in accordance with an ancient custom, go up thither to
offer sacrifice with the Amazons and also to have intercourse with them for the
sake of begetting children, doing this in secrecy and darkness, any Gargarian
at random with any Amazon; and after making them pregnant they send them away;
and the females that are born are retained by the Amazons themselves, but the
males are taken to the Gargarians to be brought up; and each Gargarian to whom
a child is brought adopts the child as his own, regarding the child as his son
because of his uncertainty.” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Geography</i>,
xi.5.1) The Gargarians are almost certainly to be identified as Nakh or
Proto-Nakh (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">gergara</i> means “kindred”)
(Jaimoukha, 2005, p. 30). This
story establishes an ancient connection between the matriarchal Northwest
Caucasians and the patriarchal Northeast Caucasians. I would like to propose an identification of the Northeast
Caucasian metallurgists with Tubal-Cain (“the forger of all implements of bronze and iron,” Gen. 4:22). If this
identification is accepted, we find that both the Northeast and Northwest
Caucasians are ultimately descended from Tubal-Cain and Naamah, the children of
the Cainite Lamech by his second wife, Zillah.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>The Significance of Various Numbers</u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">One:</i></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> the one SUN (291);
archaic NWC Caucasian element (za) = Kabardan </i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">zə</span>; absence of the One SUN (936);
also ONE GEM like to the SUN with augmented ray (1441)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Two (dualism):</i></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Sun/Moon,
human/devi, day/night (146), male/female (125), heaven/hell (132); two days and
nights (215), G-d/satan (1-2), Why should the creator of good make evil? (112),
Sun+Moon (40, 207), Planetary Sect (33), two men on road (207ff., 250), King
and Sun-like Queen (308), flesh/soul (268), adamant/rock (330), double Sun/Moon
(275), lover pities lover (293), bruised bruise (295), a companion (296);
DUALISM (Zoroastrian influence); two black slaves (609); two suns (936)—banner
of Vakht’ang VI also portrayed two suns; two-headed spear of the Narts
(Colarusso 119); two crosses (Nino 35), two stars (Nino 35); two wakes held
among Chechens—first was for three days, beginning the day after the funeral;
the second involved “bed rites,” and the riding of horses to the next village,
the riders bearing gifts of apples and nuts suspended from forked sticks
(Jaimoukha, 2005)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Three:</i></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> 3-legged table of
the type that one sat at for meals; all one had to do was tap on it and command
it to bring food, and it would bring whatever was desired; unlike most tables,
the top of this one was made of leather (Colarusso, p. 35), 3 idols mentioned
in Nino story, liminality (mediating third); trinity including Warzameg, Yimis,
Pshimaruquo [p</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">š<sup>y</sup>әmahrәq<sup>w</sup>a] (Aptswaha, Colarusso 32);
sameba (Trinity), samtredia (3 doves), samtskhe; 3 priests observe the sky in
120º segments (Simonia article); 6, 17, 69, 131, 156, 157 (metals), 163, 193,
194, 196 (2:1), 197, 200, 203, 285, 314, 320 (2:1), 321 (power, eye, form);
those THREE are covered by the SEVEN PLANETS (1385); to each a scepter, purple
and jeweled crowns (1533) + 3 gifts of 1000 units each (1534); Kabardan </i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">śə
phonemically = śa (100); three magical whetstones (Colarusso 154); Shotrash
makes him vomit 3 times, all the mother’s milk he ever drank (Colarusso 238);
three crosses (Nino 35); SAMOTXE; The Svan Trinity (“the big God, the Virgin
Mary, St. George”); horse led three times around the crypt; three-day wake,
beginning with the day after the funeral (Jaimoukha, 2005); the Chechen code of
ghillakkh (“decency”) had three components: yah (“pride” [lit. “face”]), bekhk
(“duty”), and eh (“shame”) (Jaimoukha, 2005, pp. 134-135); among the Chechens,
it was improper to inquire a house-guest’s purpose until he had stayed for
three days (Jaimoukha, 2005); the angel “spoke three words to her, at which she
fell down upon her face.” (Lang, 1976, p. 31); “Yevdomikov, known through the
Caucasus as the Three-Eyed General (thanks to a scar between his eyes)”
(Griffin, 2001, p. 166).</span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Four:</b> The king
sends messengers to “the four corners of the heavens” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T. </i>115). The Abkhaz word for four (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">š-ba</i>), is
distinguished from the word for seven (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bә</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ž-b</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">à</i>) only by voicing. The
Chechen word for four (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Di‘) is unique in
that it </i>must agree with the gender-class of its noun (the initial consonant
is variously realized as b, d, y, or v).
The Georgian word for “paradise” (samotxe) appears to combine the roots
for three (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sami</i>) and four (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">otxi</i>). The Cross is described as “the four-armed” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Movses
Dasxuranci</i>, ii.30, p. 135).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Five:</b> “When five
years old I was like an opened rosebud” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i>
310, also 312); “five months had passed and he was returning.” (Abaza folktale,
Colarusso, 2002, p. 229)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Six:</b> One of the
Georgian words for cannabis is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ekvsunje</i>
(“six riches”)—very strange! “Six horsemen” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i> 193); P’arsadan possessed six kingdoms (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i> 301). “The
horse’s skull turned into dust, and six men appeared from it.” (Abaza folktale,
Colarusso, 2002, p. 229)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Seven:</i></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> (7 brothers,
ii.14; 135); 183, 242, 275, 301, 302, 316; (Abkhaz bә</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ž-b</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">à) distinguished
from 4 by voicing; (Chechen </i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">vwor<sup>h</sup>; 7 and 8 are the only words
in the
language which contain the unvoiced R<sup>h</sup>); 7<sup>th</sup> Heaven
(608); 7 heavens (1285); 7
planets (1515); in Kabardan proverb (</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">blə); plunged in water 7 times, hardened him 7 times
(Colarusso p. 53); seven and eight layers (Colarusso 195); seven rivers
(Colarusso 99); 7 women (Colarusso 101, 103 = Pleiades); seven furrows
(Colarusso 238); among the Chechens, the blood-price for a murder was assessed
in multiples of seven cows; a host received seven cows if his guest was
murdered (Jaimoukha, 2005)</span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Eight:</i></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> (Chechen </i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bar<sup>h</sup>,
does NOT agree with gender-class [though 18 does]; 7 and 8 are the only words
in the language which contain the unvoiced R<sup>h</sup>); 8-day exposure of
Circassian nobles on raised platform; EIGHT DAYS of wedding festivities
(1444); 8
oxen (Colarusso 119); </i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11.5pt;">seven and eight layers (Colarusso 195); eight-fold
stars and flowers are the most common decorative motifs in Daghestan
(Chenciner, Ismailov & Magomedkhanov, 2006)</span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Nine:</b> This is an extremely important number
in some parts of the Caucasus. It
appears frequently in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vepxis T’q’aosani</i>: “nine heavens” (399, and see below);
“nine eunuchs” (1167), “nine pearls” (1441), “nine trays of pearls and nine
steeds” (1535). Turning to the
Northeast Caucasus, we find that in one Abaza folktale, the Indo-European
anti-hero Sotrash (“two stars”) is one of nine brothers (Colarusso, 2002). In Abkhaz, “nine” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">žº-ba</i>) is nearly identical to “ten” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">žºa-ba</i> ). However, the number nine finds its fullest expression in the
Northeast Caucasus: the infamous sect of the “finger-cutters” required nine
victims for their gruesome human sacrifices (three sets of three) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Movses Dasxuranci</i>, ii.18, p. 31). In
Daghestan, decorative patterns on furniture (spoon boxes) are sometimes
arranged in nines (Chenciner, Ismailov & Magomedkhanov, 2006, p. 81),
though eight is much more common.
Among the Chechens, it was believed that “every-day opportunities to do
good or evil presented themselves in nines.” (Jaimoukha, 2005, p. 131).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Ten: </b>This number does not come up very
often! Note that “ten” in Abkhaz (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">žºa-ba</i>) is nearly identical to “nine” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">žº-ba</i>).
I found only one reference in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vepxis
T’q’aosani</i>—“even a tenth of what he gave” (1533). In the Northeast Caucasus, the wrists
of Daghestanian women are sometimes tattooed in a bracelet-pattern of ten
spots; however, five, seven, and eight appear to be more common (Chenciner,
Ismailov & Magomedkhanov, 2006).
Obviously the number ten holds much less importance among the Caucasian
peoples than it does among the Indo-Europeans!</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Eleven:</b> When I
was in Ushguli, a village in upper Svaneti, I visited the home of a woman who
was apparently a witch or “wise-woman.” While there, I photographed this
strange 11-hour clock, which was painted on an exterior wall on the second
story. At first appearance, it
would be easy to dismiss this as a joke.
However, its existence in this context (along with two crudely
taxidermied goats, one visible here, posted at the ends of the balcony along
lines of sight converging at the corner where the clock is) suggests something
more profound. I have discussed
the mathematics of this with my brother (Dave Grove) and with a friend (Daniel
Stevens, who practices medicine in rural Nebraska). We have discovered, among other things, that an eleven-hour
clock can be derived from a twelve-hour clock: the hands of a regular
(twelve-hour) clock will coincide or overlap exactly eleven times in twelve
hours, every 12/11 of an hour. The
points on the clock-face where this occurs (all of them irrational numbers)
correspond to the hours of an eleven-hour clock. If we think of a regular (twelve-hour) clock as an
idealization of the solilunar cycle (two bodies rotating at a relative speed of
12:1), then these eleven syzygies will correspond to eleven New Moons. Also, eleven days is the difference between a
solar year (365 days) and a lunar year (354 days). There is a great deal
more to be said about this eleven-hour clock, but I will leave that for another
time!</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vepxis
T’q’aosani</i> may also contain an allusion to this: “meanwhile three years
save three months had passed” (181). Three years less three months is 33/36, or
11/12. The
number eleven is often associated with the Zodiac (instead of twelve), owing <img align="left" alt="S7301718" height="233" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0/clip_image002.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="309" />to the
fact that at any given time, only eleven of the twelve signs are visible (since
the Sun always occupies one of the signs, the Sun’s glare renders it
invisible). This fact is suggested
by a verse from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vepxis T’q’aosani</i>:
“the sun hides even the planets” (1387).
A well-known passage from Genesis is also relevant: “behold, the sun and the moon and eleven stars
were bowing down to me” (Gen. 37:9).<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 16pt;"> </span>A
Northeast Caucasian reference to the number eleven is found in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">History of the Caucasian Albanians</i>: “Now
the brave Juansher fought for seven years in those painful battles until,
having received eleven grievous wounds, he took leave of them and retired to
the province of Atrpatakan . . .” (Movses Dasxuranci, 2.18). In Abkhaz, the word for “eleven” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">žº</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">è-y-za</i>) is highly irregular, preserving the archaic
Northwest Caucasian word for “one” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">za</i>). Since Svaneti and Abkhazia are
continguous, this fact may have some relevance to the strange “clock” I saw in Ushguli.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The number eleven has various unsavory associations: in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">English Physitians Guide: or a Holy Guide</i>
(1662), John Heydon writes, “Of the signification of the Number eleven: How by
it we know the bodies of Spirits, and their natural constitutions” (Chap.
XIII); in one of his alchemical recipes, Heydon instructs the practitioner to
“take of our Earth through eleven degrees eleven grains” (p. 140). In Jewish thought, eleven was the
number of the spices which were used to prepare the incense (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ketores</i>) for the Tabernacle (Ex.
30:34-36). The Tabernacle also was
furnished with eleven curtains (Ex. 26).
Eleven was associated with Lilith, Adam’s first wife (Gen. 1) who became
a demon. In Jewish Qabbalism,
there were said to be eleven “averse sephiroth,” corresponding to the ten
Sephiroth. (Westcott, 1890) “11
was always interpreted in medieval exegeis ad malam partem, in a purely
negative sense. The sixteenth-century numerologist Peter Bungus went so far as to
claim that ‘11 has no connection with divine things, no ladder reaching up to
things above, nor any merit.’ He considered it to be the number of sinners and
of penance. Medieval theological works often mention ‘the 11 heads of error.’”
(Schimmel & Endres, 1994, p. 105) [this appears to go back to Augustine, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De anima et eius origine</i>, book iii,
where the errors of Vincentius Victor are classified under 11 headings] In the
Babylonian epic <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Enuma Elish</i>, Tiamat
(chaos) is supported by 11 monsters. In Schiller’s Piccolomini, the astrologer
Seni declares: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Elf ist die S</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ü</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nde. Elfe ü</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">berschreiten die zehn Geboten</i>. (“Eleven is sin. Elevens transgress the Ten
Commandments”).<span style="color: red;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Twelve:</b> “twelve
slaves” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T</i>. 70, 74, 83, 91); the
“living column” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">svetitskhoveli</i>)
“stood twelve cubits above its pedestal” (Lang, 1976, p. 31). This number suggests biblical
influence.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Thirteen:</b> Saint
Nino and twelve women wept and prayed, resulting in the miracle of the “living
column” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">svetitskhoveli</i>),
which floated in the air above its base (Lang, 1976); this is clearly
influenced by the biblical accounts of Jesus and His twelve disciples). It is very interesting that the number
thirteen appears to have little significance in the Caucasus, either good or
bad. It appears that eleven may
have a function there similar to that of thirteen in Western culture (see
above).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Fourteen:</b> Abkhaz <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">žºә-p</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">š</i> (“fourteen”) is distinguished from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">žº</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ә-b</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ž (“seventeen”)</i> only
by voicing; Chechen <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De:tta</i>
(“fourteen”) must agree with the gender-class of its noun (so also 24, 34,
etc.).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Fifteen:</b> “I was
fifteen years old” (V.T. 321); this references an important turning-point and
is associated with puberty.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
[<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Sixteen</b>] (no
occurrences)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Seventeen:</b> Abkhaz
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">žºә-b</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ž</i> (“seventeen”) is distinguished from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">žº</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ә-p</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">š</i> (“fourteen”) only
by voicing.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Eighteen:</b> In
Chechen <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bar<sup>h</sup>i:tta</i>
(“eighteen”) must agree with the gender-class of its noun; yet <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bar<sup>h</sup> (“eight”)</i> does not
require such agreement!</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Nineteen:</b> In
Chechen, “nineteen”(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">t’q’ayesna</i>) is anticipatory to “twenty” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">t’q’a</i>) , but is
entirely unrelated to the word for “nine” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">i:ss</i>).
According to Matsiev (1995), the Chechen numbers 19 and 20 “have a different origin” from the other
numbers. (p. 25)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Twenty:</b> Vigesimal
numbering systems are common throughout the Caucasus and are used by peoples of
all three of the indigenous linguistic phyla. In Georgian, for example, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">oci</i> is “twenty,” ocdaati is “thirty” (lit. “twenty-and-ten”),
ormoci is “forty” (lit. “two-twenties”), ormocdaati is “fifty” (lit.
“two-twenties-and-ten”), samoci is “sixty” (lit. “three-twenties”), and so
on. Languages of the Northeast
Caucasian and Northwest Caucasian phyla have similar systems. However, in Chechen, the word for
“twenty” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">t’q’a</i>) is unrelated to the word for “two” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ši’</i>). According to Matsiev (1995), the Chechen numbers 19 and 20 “have a different origin” from the other
numbers. The number 20 and its multiples are commonly used in Georgian to
express abundance: “one-hundred-score beasts were slain,” of which one hunter
“slew more than 20” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T. </i>81);
“his suffering increased twenty-fold (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i>
139); “twenty days he journeyed” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i>
146).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Twenty-One:</b> Among
the Chechens, the blood-price for the murder of a member of a small clan was 21
cows (63 cows if he was a member of a large clan (Jaimoukha, 2005)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Thirty-Seven:</b> “They stood the tree up on its base at the southern
door of the church, where the breezes wafted its fragrant scent about and
unfolded its leaves. There the
tree stood for thirty-seven days, and its leaves did not change colour.” (Lang,
1976, pp. 34-35) In the context, this seems like an entirely arbitrary number;
yet in Southeast Asia, 37 is an important mandalic number, representing a
central point surrounded by four cardinal points, which are in turn surrounded
by 32 points (or each surrounded by eight points). This is the number of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nats</i> in the pre-Buddhist Burmese pantheon, and is represented as
100101 in binary notation. (Crump, 1990, pp. 70-71)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Forty:</b> The Georgians conclude 40 days of mourning with a feast (personal
observation). The number 40
appears frequently in Vepxis T’q’aosani, e.g. “forty doors” (1341); “forty
rooms” (1343); “forty treasuries” (1348).
The use of this number by the Christian Georgians and not by the North
Caucasians suggests a biblical influence. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Fifty:</b> Saint Nino
assembled a congregation of 50. (Lang, 1976)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Ninety:</b> “Fate has
increased my grief ninety-fold, one-hundred-fold” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i> 178)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Ninety-Nine:</b> This
was the number of the Narts (at least in Northwest Caucasian folklore).
(Colarusso, 2002)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">One-Hundred:</b>
“They talked simply of one-hundred things” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.
</i>136); “Hazard kills equally, be it one or one-hundred” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i> 163); A Circassian folktale refers
to “100 oxen with one horn, 100 oxen with two horns, and 100 oxen with three
horns” (Colarusso, 2002, p. 93).
Other Northeast Caucasian occurrences include “100 pork sausages” (p.
38), “100 sins” (pp. 104-105), “100 dogs” (p. 155), and a forest of 100 trees
(p. 99). “Fate has increased my grief ninety-fold, one-hundred-fold” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i> 178); “one-hundred times” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i> 231); “tears a hundred-fold more” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i> 244, 266); “O heart a hundred times
kindled” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i> 299); “one hundred
treasures” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i> 325, but compare
this to the Georgian word for cannabis [ekvsunji], “six treasures”).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Three-Hundred</b>:
300 oxen (Colarusso, 2002); one of the Tbilisi Metro stations is named in honor
the the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">samasi aragveli</i> (“300 of the
Aragvi”), three hundred soldiers from the Aragvi district who fought a delaying
action against the invading Persian army in 1795. They fought to the last man, after which the city was
sacked.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Six-Hundred:</b> “100
oxen with one horn, 100 oxen with two horns, and 100 oxen with three horns”
(Colarusso, 2002, p. 93) = 600 horns.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Eight-Hundred:</b>
800 spoonfuls of mush (Colarusso, 2002).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">One-Thousand:</b> “a
thousand times more” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i> 292);
“multiply a thousand-fold” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">gaat’anist’aneba,
V.T.</i> 297); “1000 gems, 1000 pearls, 1000 steeds” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i> 1534).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Two-Thousand:</b>
“one-hundred score” animals slaughtered (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.
</i>81).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Three-Thousand: </b>“1000
gems, 1000 pearls, 1000 steeds” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i>
1534).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Ten-Thousand:</b>
“ten-thousand-fold more” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i> 266);
“ten-thousand knives cut my heart” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i>
346). Use of this number by the
Christian Georgians probably reflects the influence of the Greek <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">myrias</i> (“ten-thousand, myriad”).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Ten-Million:</b>
“ten-thousand times a thousand soldiers” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i>
44).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pigs = 9, 10, 11, 12,
18, 30, 30 = 120 x 30 = 3600 (Colarusso, 38)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Measures of Time<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Three Days: 339, 341<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Seven Days: A plain
that takes seven days to cross (V.T. 183)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">One Month: 182, 191,
197 [= 35/36], 936 (Sun absent for one month in winter)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">40 Days: Georgians
hold a major commemoration on the 40<sup>th</sup> day after a death<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Two Months: 184 [=
34/36 or 17/18]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Three Months: 181<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Eight Months: baby
sees self in mirror (Jaimoukha, Chechens, 150)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nine Months and Nine
Days: gestation of Sawseruquo (Colarusso p. 53)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">One Year: 116, 166,
324; one year anniversary of death (Georgians)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Two Years: Among the
Chechens, the second anniversary of a death was the occasion of a major
celebration (Jaimoukha, 2005)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Three Years Less Three
Months: 181<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Three Years: 131, 156,
163, 284; third anniversary of a death ended the wearing of mourning garb
(Jaimoukha, 2005).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Five Years: 310, 312;
ABREK (k’ai q’ma; dik k’ant)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Seven Years: 316;
Movses Dasxuranci 2.18 (p. 112-13)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Fifteen Years: 321<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">500 years: (Colarusso
228 [Abaza])<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
780 years: This was the period of one calendrical round,
according to the Georgian<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> chronicon </i>(Hewitt,
1996b)<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">1000 years = giants’ lifespan: (Colarusso 228
[Abaza])<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Days of the Week<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
For the Georgians, Sunday was first day of the week); Among
the Northwest Caucasians, Monday was the first day of the week (Colarusso,
2002, p. 396). Monday was also the first day of the week among the Chechens.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Time-Depth<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">it appears that 1721
is more or less analogous to 1611<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">See what field-work
reveals (Ganja, Ksiani, Kutaisi)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">18<sup>th</sup>
century events unknown for isolated areas<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Space and Dimensionality<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">K.C.C. re. one, two,
three dimensions (sparks)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Liminality:</i></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> 257, 311
(sunrise), 345 (threshold) + ABREK (wikipedia); childbirth in isolated huts
(Chechens), (Khevsurs); Among the Chechens, the path to the village cemetery
was marked by a line of high stone monuments; the graves are marked by carved
stone stelae (chartash) (Jaimoukha, 2005)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Cosmology<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Hell</b>: The Georgian word for “hell” is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jojoxeti</i> (literally “lizard-land”). In Circassian folklore, the realm of the
dead is ruled by <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">arxºan-arxºanәz</i>
(“the old one who glides in coils”).
“In some variants of this saga, this name was applied to a giant serpent
or dragon that lives underground.
By some accounts he is a “lizard man,” a quasi-human reptilian demon.”
(Colarusso, 2002, p. 33).
According to the first chapter of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>, the earth is like a mirror which reflects the heavens, and
hell lies in the depths of this same mirror. Hell has a physical location at the center of the earth, and
comprises four concentric circles, the outermost circle being designated as
Abraham’s Bosom (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">abrahamis c’iaghi</i>,
cf. Luke 16:22-23), the second as Limbo (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">limbo</i>,
the abode of unbaptized infants—a Roman Catholic idea which clearly suggests
Western influence), the third as the Mercy Seat (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">salxinebuli</i>, cf. Ex. 25:17) or Purgatory (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">gansac’mendeli</i>), and the innermost circle as Eternal Hell (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sauk’uno jojoxeti</i>). The writer delineates the precise
diameters of each of these circles in Georgian leagues (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">aghaji</i>). While parts
of this scheme are clearly reminiscent of Dante Alighieri and other Western
writers, the association of hell with mirrors probably originated in the
Caucasus (see below, “Mirrors”).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Sun & Moon</b> = <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">female/male; full moon; matriarchal;
mama/deda</i>; this may be related to a deliberate reversal, perhaps a social
revolution against matriarchy.
First, the Georgian <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mze</i>
(“sun”) is nearly identical to the Abkhaz <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a-mza</i>
(“moon”). Second, the Georgian
words <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mama</i> (“father”) and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">deda</i> (“mother”) appear to be arbitrarily
reversed. Third, the Georgian week begins with Sunday, while (most, if not all
of) the North Caucasian peoples count Monday as the first day of the week. This
may even tie in somehow with the numerous mirror-reversals seen in the
illustrations of Saet’lo Xiromant’ia.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sun = life; 1513</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ECLIPSE:</i></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> 122, 125, 211,
277, 292<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Number of the heavens (9 or 7):</i></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> [Arriaga]; 7<sup>th</sup> heaven (608), 9 heavens (399); (1167): He
commanded NINE Eunuchs to stand guard at the door that peer of the SUN
[astrological conceit?]; in wrath the WHEEL [borbali] of the SEVEN HEAVENS has
turned upon us (1285); to them also in wrath turned round the WHEEL [borbali
(wheel, whirlwind, arrow)] and CIRCLE (simgrgvle) of HEAVEN (1391). <o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Geography:<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Georgia was considered a single
country, even though it was usually politically disunited (three kingdoms of
Kartli, Kakheti, and Imereti; principalities of Mingrelia [Samegrelo], Guria,
Svaneti, and Samtsxe), and several languages (Georgian, Mingrelian, Svan, Laz)
were spoken by the Kartvelians.
The Svans were known for their savagery, the Mingrelians for their
vivacity. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Northwest Caucasians were
notorious as slave-traders; their emporia at Anapa, Sochi, and Sukhumi kept the
Ottomans supplied with slaves and concubines. Circassian women were especially desired for their beauty
and for their luxuriant hair. The
northeast litoral of the Black Sea was known as the “Slave Coast” (find
reference) and was the terminus of a complex network of slave-trading routes
which extended to inland to the Northeast Caucasians (also notorious
slave-traders) and to the Caspian Sea, where they purchased captured Russians
from the Turkmen pirates raiders; the Turkmens also sold Russian captives as
slaves to Khiva and Bukhara, where there were more than one million Christian
slaves at the time of the Russian conquest of the region (1866-73).<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b>Most of the North Caucasus, including
the Nogai Tartars and other Altaic nomads, was tributary to the Kabards, the
eastern branch of the Circassians, who had created a centrally-organized feudal
state.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Northeast Caucasians fall into
two groups: the Nakh or North Caucasians (including the Chechens and Ingush),
who generally coexisted peacefully with the Georgians (the two races have been
in contact for many centuries, with significant linguistic and cultural
interchange); and the Muslim Daghestanians, who were the nemesis of the
Georgians. The mountain fastnesses
of Daghestan are inhabited by no fewer than 31 different linguistic groups,
many of which preserve extremely archaic cultural features. For some reason, Daghestan was
perennially overpopulated, resulting in pressure on their neighbors. Since at least the 17<sup>th</sup>
century, men from Daghestan migrated to Baku and other towns in Azerbaijan as
laborers, while at the same time they perpetrated annual raids against the
Christian Georgians to the west.
The Avars, Lezghins, and Didos were especially the scourge of Kakheti,
where the churches were loopholed to serve as places of refuge against their raids. These mountaineers traveled in small, mobile
bands, pillaging the countryside and seizing Christian captives as slaves. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Between the Northwest Caucasians
and the Northeast Caucasians lay the territory of the Ossetians, who controlled
the Dariel Pass and the approaches to Russia. The Georgians regarded the Ossetians as thieves and
swindlers of the worst sort. The
Soviets used the Ossetians to police the city of Tbilisi, since they had no
loyalty to the local population (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">find
reference</i>). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vepxis
T’q’aosani</i> is set in “Arabia,” which is used to represent Georgia (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T. </i>32, 177, 279). Parts of the poem take place in India,
described as being ruled by seven kings (V.T. 301, 326, 1535). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Many Georgians served in the army
of Nadir Shah when he invaded India, and participated in the sack of Delhi (1739)
(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">find reference</i>). Georgians also fought for the Persians
in Afghanistan, where Giorgi XI of Kartli was the Persian <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sipah salar</i> (“commander-in-chief”). Giorgi XI was treacherously killed at a banquet near
Qandahar (21 April 1709), and his nephew Kaikhosrau perished in Afghanistan
with his entire Persian-Georgian army of 30,000 (October 1711). Badakshan
(northeast Afghanistan) was renowned for its rubies (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i> 176). For the Georgians, Persia was perhaps the most important
foreign country; as Irakli Simonia puts it, the Persians have always had “a
very strong cultural profile.” Georgia was Zoroastrian for several centuries
before the advent of Christianity (circa 327). Both Kakheti and Kartli were usually vassals of the Shah,
while Western Georgia (the kings of Imereti and the princes of Mingrelia
(Samegrelo) and Guria) were within the Ottoman sphere of influence. Both Giorgi
XI and Vakht’ang VI served the Shah as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sipah
salar</i> (“commander-in-chief”).
In order to serve the Shah, Georgians had to go through the motions of
conversion to Islam; however, there are stories of Georgian cavalrymen passing
through the Shah’s domains, loudly cursing the Prophet for all to hear—since
they were the backbone of the Persian army, they were able to get away with
this (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">find reference</i>). Indeed, the
assassin of Giorgi XI sent the Cross and book of Psalms found on the king’s
body to the Shah, as proof of his defection from Islam (1709) (George XI of
Kartli, 2009). The Azeri Khanates
(about 26 small states, including Baku, Ganja, Sheki, Shamakha, Qarabagh, and
Talysh) were generally subject to the Shah; the Georgians had traditionally
claimed Ganja, however, and were sometimes able to exercise political control
in that direction. The Azeris are
Shi’ites of Iranian race, but came to speak a Turkic language. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
During most of the early modern
period (16<sup>th</sup> – 19<sup>th</sup> centuries), Western Georgia (Imereti,
Mingrelia, Guria) were the Turkish sphere of influence, while Eastern Georgia
(Kartli, Kakheti) were the Persian sphere of influence. Turkey was also the principal market
for slaves from the Caucasus.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Armenians were generally
friendly with the Georgians and had a large community in Tbilisi; indeed there
were more Armenian churches there than Georgian ones. There was a degree of tension between them owing to the fact
that the Georgians were Eastern Orthodox and the Armenians were
Monophysites. In addition, the
disgraceful failure of the Georgian and Armenian armies (numbering 40,000
altogether) to coordinate their efforts at Ganja in support of Peter the
Great’s invasion of the Caucasus (1722) has never been forgotten—each side
continues to blame the other for the disaster which ensued (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">find reference</i>). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Maghreb (North Africa) is
referenced (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i> 1166) in the context
of “a couch of gold, of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">maghribuli</i>
(Moroccan) red. Rome is referenced
from time to time, as in V.T. 1534, “one-thousand gems born of a Roman hen,”
concerning which Marjorie Wardrop’s footnote reads, “Teimuraz says there is a
legend that Roman hens lay gems” (p. 250). Biblical
geography also influenced Georgian thinking: “Gabaon” (Gibeon) is mentioned (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T. </i>320); Georgian knights fought in
the Crusades, and made pilgrimages to Jerusalem: “Whenever they come on
pilgrimage to the Lord’s Sepulchre, they march into the Holy City with banners
displayed, without paying tribute to anyone, for the Saracens dare in no wise
molest them. They wear their hair
and beards about a cubit long and have hats on their heads.” (Jacques de Vitry,
circa 1180, quoted by Lang, 1976, p. 11).
One of the Georgian words for the Milky Way was “the way to Jerusalem”
(Simonia, 2003). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Syria (al-Sham) had the reputation
of being a region where knights went to perform acts of valor (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">find reference</i>).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Egypt was of great importance to
the Caucasus because of the large number of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mamluks</i>
(slave-warriors) from the Caucasus who had been settled there, where they often
succeeded in ruling the country.
These included Christian children from Georgia who were sold to the
Ottomans (usually by North Caucasian slave-raiders, sometimes by Georgian traitors),
as well as Circassians, who were sometimes sold by their parents to relieve
their poverty. It was the Mamluk
army who opposed Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt in 1798. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Georgian manuscript known as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kosmos</i> (N883), dating to the 18<sup>th</sup>
century, gives the names of heavenly bodies in several languages, including
Armenian, Greek, Latin, Turkish, and “Dalmatian.” It is not clear who these Dalmatians were, but the sea-going
Uskoks and Ragusans traded throughout the Mediterranean, often in association
with the Venetians. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Spain was known to the Georgians,
who preserved a memory of the “Western Iberians,” whom they believed were their
kin (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">find reference</i>). I have met several Georgians who were
deeply interested in the Basque language, which they believed was distantly
related to Georgian; and in Svaneti, I met a young Basque who had decided to
visit Georgia with that same assumption.
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Sweden figures in Georgian history
because Aleksandre, son of King Archil of Imereti (known as Aleksandre
Archilovich), who had traveled in Western Europe with Peter the Great, studied
military science in Holland, and became a general of ordnance in the Russian
army, was captured by the Swedes at Narva in 1700. He was imprisoned in Sweden until 1710, and died at Riga in
the following year (Lang, 1957).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Xat’aeti (“Cathay,” i.e. China) is
mentioned in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vepxis T’q’aosani</i> (196)
as a distant and exotic place. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Georgian word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">gmiri</i> (“hero, giant”) apparently derives
from the ancient Cimmerians, who passed through the Caucasus in the 8<sup>th</sup>
century B.C. (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">V.T.</i> 290, 333). There are also various Caucasian
traditions of extinct or mythical races: the Chints, who lived somewhere north
of the Caucasus, and the associated Isps and Marakunts (Colarusso, 2002). Kajeti is mentioned in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vepxis T’q’aosani</i> (319, 1391), as the
land of the mythical <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kajebi </i>(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jinns</i>); this brings to mind the numerous
“mythical” races referenced in Vedic literature. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vepxis
T’q’aosani</i> contains many interesting expressions like “the bounds of the
earth” (109), “the four corners of the heavens” (115), “within the bounds of
the sky” (127), “all the face of the earth” (141, 267), “all beings under the
heavens” (190), which illustrate Georgian assumptions about geography. The Northeast Caucasians, on the other
hand, had a markedly different set of concepts for this. Circassian folklore refers to “the edge
of the earth,” but affirms that the earth has no edge or boundary. The cosmology of the Northeast
Caucasians distinguished three parallel worlds—the one we know, “the life that
lies under the earth,” and “the life that is in the heavens.” These three worlds were all
interconnected and accessible through the roots and branches of a “world tree”
which was personified as a female being, “Lady Tree” (Colarusso, 2002, p. 100),
a conception which is very similar to the Norse Yggdrasil, or World Tree.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Proper Names &
Allusions:</b> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Georgian literature is filled with
biblical allusions, of course. In
addition, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vepxis T’q’aosani</i> mentions
Dionysius the Areopagite (“Dionisi the Wise,” 176), and contains several
allusions to famous characters from Islamic literature: Vis and Ramin (182),
and Rostom (192). It also alludes
to the Sirens mentioned in the Odyssey (329).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">King of Kings</i></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">: (desc.
Jesse, David, Solomon): 114<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Firmament:</i></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> 109<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ether</i></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">: 283<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Astrology<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">1391: Then the
measureless wrath of God struck Kadjeti.
CRONOS, looking down in anger, removed the sweetness of the SUN; to them
also in wrath turned round the WHEEL [borbali (wheel, whirlwind, arrow)] and
CIRCLE (simgrgvle) of HEAVEN. The fields could not contain the
corpses; the army of the dead was increasing
[**Important astrological verse**] <o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
In Khevi [a
region of Georgia] they have a cult ceremony, the so-called “Astvaglakhoba”.
On New Year’s Eve, three archpriests ascend to the <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
top of
“Sameba” for the night. They sit in silence leaning against each <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
other’s backs
and observe the sky until daybreak. In the morning they <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
sacrifice a
new-born calf, have a feast, and then predict the weather, the <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
harvest, wars
or diseases in the coming year. (S. Bekudadze, 1968; quoted in Simonia,
2008, pp. 215-216) <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
This passage
demonstrates unequivocally that there was an indigenous Georgian tradition of
predictive astrology. The two
astrological works I have been studying are both translations of foreign texts,
making it difficult to identify specifically Georgian astrological ideas. However, I do have a copy of Kosmos (N
883) which I have not yet begun to study, and there are at least ten other
Georgian astrological and calendrical manuscripts which are likely to contain
original Georgian material.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Luminaries, sect: 107
(lights of heaven); 944: Behold, the stars bear witness, even the seven confirm
my words: the sun, Otarid, Mushtar and Zual faint for my sake; moon, Aspiroz,
Marikh, come and bear me witness
. . . (this is organized according to sect, with Mercury diurnal); this verse
demonstrates that the doctrine of planetary sect was known in the Caucasus—very
interesting because this was originally a Magian concept (pre-Islamic Persian
Astrology).</i> “Fortune-telling (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pal</i>) was a developed “craft” among the
Vainakh [i.e. Chechens], who had special classes of people with vatic powers
and a number of oracular devices, including a book of divinations (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">seeda-zhaina</i>: literally “star book”), at
their disposal. Diviners would
spend the night in a sanctuary, lying face down and keeping their ears pressed
to the floor to hear the deity’s revelations and convey them to an eager
audience the next morning.” (Jaimoukha, 2005, p. 150). Are there any copies of this “star
book” still extant? Unfortunately,
several important collections of Chechen manuscripts and folklore were
deliberately destroyed by the Russians during the 1994-96 war—greatly reducing
the chances that I will ever lay eyes on an example of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">seeda-zhaina</i>! It is
exceedingly ironic that in all of his publications, Dr. Irakli Simonia has
chosen to replace the title of MS Q867 (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> [“Horoscopic Chiromancy”]) with his own designation, “Star
Book,” in an effort to suppress the “superstitious” nature of the manuscript.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sun = Life: 66;<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">Mze deda chemi, Malkh nana ju sa, solntsa mat moia </span></i><span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">(Gould); “maker of
good weather” (1513); banner of Vakht’ang VI portrayed two suns<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: TimesNewRoman;">“Engraved
on the outside wall were mysterious indents and notches believed to be part of
an elaborate solar calendar system, used in the mountains in the pre-Islamic
era” (Karny, p. 162, with illustration—Daghestan)</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Full Moon: 106, 274;
mangi (G. “moon”, P. “pearl”): 120</i>; 943: Come, O MOON, take pity on me; I
shrink and am wasted like thee; the SUN fills me,
the SUN, too, empties me; sometimes I am full-bodied, sometimes I am spare<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Stars<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">: 185, 6, 37
(star/moon); </i>these lovers of STARS [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mnatobta</i>],
excelled by none (1349, refers to the planets); PLEIADS [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">khomlni</i>] (1387), assoc. with 7 women (Colarusso 101, 103); Ursa
Major = zºa<span style="font-family: 'Lucida Grande';">ɣ</span>ºabәna (“star family”,
Circassian—Colarusso 78); Sotrash has eyes like 2 morning stars, “something
black” (Colarusso 237 [Abaza]); miraculous crown of stars; “When daylight came,
two of the stars separated from the others—one going eastwards and the other
towards the west. The brighter of
the two went gently towards a spot near a stream on the far side of the river
Aragvi, and stood over the rocky hill out of which a rivulet had sprung from
the tears of Nino. From there the
star rose up to heaven.” One took up position over Mount Tkhoti by the pass of
Caspi, after which it was lost to their sight; the other stood over the village
of Bodbe in the district of Kakheti (Nino 35)<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Planets: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">134, 163*,
269, 275, 943 (7 planets); Saturn black, gloomy (938); </i>CRONOS, looking down
in anger, removed the sweetness of the SUN (1391);<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Jupiter the judge (939), Mars red with flow of blood (940), </i>Venus
(Aspiroz) (941), Mercury (942): save thee none other’s fate is like to
mine. The SUN whirls me, lets me
not go, unites with me and gives me over to burning; 1349 [mnatobta]; those
THREE are covered by the SEVEN PLANETS [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mnatobni</i>]
with a column of light (1385); the SUN hides even the PLANETS (1387); O
SUN-like and MOON-like, to what PLANET do they liken thee! (what planet art
thou/with what planet art thou?) (1513); they have the SEVEN PLANETS [mnatobni]
to compare with that SUN (1515); <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Two
sets of Georgian planet-names (Simonia)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Great Conjunctions:
1397 (They were like when Mushtar [Jupiter] and Zual [Saturn] are united ***)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nodes: 1396 (The MOON was freed from the
SERPENT to meet the SUN ***)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rays: 109, 134, 202,
others; 257, 275, 298, rays excelling the SUN (1385), 1441,1514<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Separation: 138, 144,
145, 177, 179, 316<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Milky Way: Colarusso
103 (Milky Foot-Path)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The abra stone
(meteorite): Colarusso 290 [Abaza]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vephxis T’q’aosani is
a profoundly astrological work; at the very least, it provides a clear basis
and apologetic for Georgian astrology.
It may even be interpreted in the Narrative Mode. Its most striking feature is the
copious repetition of phrases referring to the Sun and Moon (about 4:1 in their
frequency). 269**<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">FATE (very important):
189, 315, 330, 1391 (God over astral influences); gifts fitting their fate
(1534)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Supernatural Beings<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">G-d: stanza one<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Satan: stanza two
[this sets up a clear Dualism, probably reflecting Zoroastrian influence]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Devi et al.: 98, 110
(eshma), 118 (unclean spirit), 130 (demon), 190 (jinn), 282 (kadj), 319, 1391
(Kadjeti = their country), 337 (Beelzebel)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">NARTS, esp. the undead nart xx (Circassian, Colarusso)<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gmiri (heroes, giants,
lit. = Cimmerians): 290, 333<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Aptswaha (“The Prince
of the Dead,” Pshimaruquo): highly-developed chthonic concept, very profound
relation to time and space, connected to MIRRORS<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Narts (how many?
Ninety-nine!): Sarmatian origin, with NEC accretions<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Giants (one-eyed
giant, “Nart Epos”; GMIRI ?=Ossetians<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Svan inflatable
banner, drums, banners at Mtskheta<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The fields could not
contain the corpses; the army of the dead was increasing
(1391)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yaminizh = personification
of cholera (Colarusso, p. 52)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Giants (Colarusso
passim, 139)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Little Spe people
(Colarusso 139)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wild-man of the
Caucasus: za-mamun-nay</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">šº-gºara (“a certain monkey-boy” came in,
Colarusso 406-09, Ubykh, killed him); “a wild man [laxa-tәt]</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">,
covered all over with hair, approached.
The wild man looked around.
He mistook the tree on which the cloak was draped for a man and threw
himself on it.” (Colarusso, 2002, p. 409). “Generally such lore is nonmythical,
the creature being known only to huntsmen, who consider it rare and dangerous.”
(410-11).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Plants and Drugs<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">TREES (Tree-burial,
Wishing-trees [Asherah], tree of the Narts, oak); Colarusso 102-103 re.
veneration of trees; tree gave birth to Milky Way (Colarusso 103); There is a
late-winter custom in the North Caucasus, widely observed among the Ossetians,
neighbors of the Kabardians, of tying ribbons around the trunks of trees in
sacred groves. Women and children
are forbidden to enter the groves at this time. (Colarusso 227). “I shall give you the knowledge that
you need. My roots run deep into
the ground. I know the life that
lies under the earth. My hair
rises into the sky, and I know the life that is in the heavens. (Colarusso
100); miraculous tree (Nino 34-35); Among the Abkhazians, “there did exist in
earlier centuries the unusual custom of hanging the bodies of the dead in
trees, either wrapped in skins or in wooden boxes” (Hewitt, 1998, p. 211). One
of my sources states flatly that the Caucasian peoples regarded trees as gods
(find reference).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“Veliamenov had faced
trees so large and swarming with the enemy that he had compared each trunk to a
fort. . . . The fallen beech trees that blocked Vorontsov were intermeshed with
branches and inhabited by Chechens. . . . Perhaps the most powerful image was
that which greeted the Kabarda regiment on the third day of the Biscuit
Expedition [1845]: the barricades that stood before them, the fallen beech
trees reinforced by the naked and mutilated corpses of their fellow Russian
soldiers. These hybrid bulwarks of
flesh and wood stand as a wretched symbol of Caucasian warfare. Shamil had long understood that the
countryside provided more pragmatic assistance than Allah. Any man who felled a tree was first
penalized an ox. At the second offence he would be punished with death, the
same penalty as either cowardice or treachery, underlining the importance of
the land. The body would hang in the centre of the man’s aoul for at least one
week.” (Griffin, 2001, pp. 162-163).
“When the leading troops arrived at the point where the track narrowed,
they found that Shamyl had a surprise in store for them: the barrier of
tree-trunks was piled high with the Russian dead of the day before, stripped,
hideously mutilated and stacked one on top of the other. The barrier itself was not held by the
enemy, but as the advancing Russians halted to stare in horror at this
appalling spectacle, they found themselves caught in a withering cross-fire
from strategically placed strong-points on either side.” (Maclean, 1976, p. 79)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“When the lightning
strikes one tree, do all the others bow their heads and cast themselves down,
lest it strike them also? Oh, ye of little faith, would that ye might take
example from the green wood.” (Griffin, 2001, p. 163)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“I ought to anoint all
my trees with oil” (Griffin, 2001, p. 163) <o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<img align="left" height="286" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0/clip_image003.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_3" width="242" /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Old Turkish </i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Dede Korkut Kitabı (“Book of Dede Qorqut”) describes the
mountainous region behind Trebizon as a dark, dense, and trackless forest, a
place full of dangers (find reference).
This was the beginning of a forested tract which continued into the
Caucasus; indeed, both the Kartvelians and the Northwest Caucasians inhabited
this northeastern part of Anatolia before withdrawing into the Caucasus.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">PEAR TREE (important
motif in Daghestanian art); the pear tree was considered the most sacred of
trees by some of the Caucasian peoples (find reference). “</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pears have been<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">cultivated in China for approximately 3000
years. The genus is thought to have originated in present-day <o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Circassian
Warriors gathered beneath a Tree</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> western
China in the foothills of the Tian
Shan, a mountain range of Central Asia, and to have spread to the north and
south along mountain chains, evolving into a diverse group of over 20 widely
recognized primary species.” (Wikipedia)—this corresponds to the migration
pattern of the Caucasian peoples (Altais, Alborz, Caucasus).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ALOE of Eden = life:
50, 77, 120, 156 [=life], 275, 299, 319; the ALOE [alva] with faded branch, the
pale MOON (1335)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rose (infl. of Persian
literature, cf. Gulistan of Sa‘di)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Herbal MSS: find 1983 journal article!<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">DRUGS (herbal, Medea,
modern university students)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Beekeeping (taken up
by retired abreks)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">VINE: Then the Holy
Queen stretched out her hand upon a vine-branch which grew close to Nino’s bed
and cut it off and fashioned it into a cross and gave it to Nino, saying, “Let
this be your protection. By it,
you may overcome all your foes and preach your message. I will be with you and not abandon
you.” After this vision, Nino
awoke and found the cross in her hands. (Lang, Nino 21); Viticulture is
supposed to have begun in Georgia.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“The HAZEL had special
significance in Chechen folklore and was an object of pride for the master of
the house. It was usually grown
from a sapling taken from the father or grandfather’s tree—a self-propagating
heirloom.” (Jaimoukha, p. 269)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">BEECH: the Argoun
forest and other forests of Chechnya were mainly beech trees.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">OAK: Aptswaha (Prince
of the Dead) was temporarily incapacitated by the roots of an oak (Hewitt,
story #10).<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Witchcraft<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Svaneti (describe
goats, clock)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Lang (Code of
Wakht’ang VI prescribed punishments for witchcraft and sorcery)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Witch (saga ii, 29),
“The bitch-witch of the Flying Wagon” [kºәxar<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">a</b>yna haabzәw<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">ә</b>dә]
(Colarusso 33)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The finger-cutters
(i.18)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Mirrors<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Aptswaha paper<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia
(preface; mirror-reversals; reflecting telescope?; sort out from Beltrano, E/W
conceptions)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“A baby who saw itself
in a mirror within the first eight months of its birth came to no good.”
(Jaimoukha, Chechens 150)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Reflection</u> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(Rustaveli)<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">: 51 (Sun
reflects Tariel); 189 (brightens the Sun); 291 (image of Sun)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Shadow</u> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(Rustaveli, Aptswaha);
311; the SUN approaches us, it hath given us the putting away of shadow (1335);
Prince of the Dead<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Colors<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yellow (amber,
saffron): 138, 260, 276, 346<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Crystal, Ruby, Jet<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Red & White (Nart
ii)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Directions<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">White = west, black =
north (a long-standing Central Asian color symbolism that has spilled over into
parts of the Caucasus, Colarusso 45)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Left/Right:
finger-cutters story (i.18); when a Chechen warrior died, his horse was led
three times around the crypt, after which its right ear was cut off and thrown
into the crypt; during the 18<sup>th</sup> century, his widow’s right ear was
cut off (Jaimoukha, 2005)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Up/Down: Aptswaha and
walking-stick; “By night, when I come to you, the lance is always stuck in the
ground in front of your house” (Colarusso 52); those going downhill must be the
first to greet those who are coming up (Jaimoukha, 2005); Turpal Nokhcho, the
legendary ancestor of the Chechens, was born with a piece of iron in one hand
and a piece of chees in the other (Jaimoukha, 2005); <o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>The Body<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hat on the head
(Ossetians); bareheaded (69. 343); tying up the head with rope (252)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Head/Foot orientation
(Aptswaha); to go barefoot was a great disgrace, and only a slave or a prisoner
of war would do so [Abaza women of rank wore platform shoes with pillars at the
ball of the foot and at the heel; symbolically renounces her status by smashing
her shoes] (Colarusso 296)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Gender<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mama—deda
(transposition of terms; cf. Allen’s comments about a possible social
revolution against matriarchy)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sun = feminine, Moon =
masculine (another transposition)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">NWC: matriarchal,
fostering, suckling; Amazons (amza = Moon)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Svan anxiety about
chairs<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Women may not touch a
weapon (Colarusso 56)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Misc.<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kunta Haji (founder of
Qadiri movement, preached 1849-1864); his followers still consider it taboo to
utter his name. (Jaimoukha, 268); it is forbidden for men and women to call
their partners by their names, but alluded to them by the term “heenekh”
(“someone”). It was anathema for a
man to talk about his wife. In
contrast, a woman had closer relationships with her brothers. (Jaimoukha, 130). Among the Chechens, when someone dies
the neighbors leave their gates standing open as a symbol of shared grief
(Jaimoukha, 2005)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“For five or six years
Hadji Murad had prospered. Then,
in 1840, another local leader, Akhmet Khan of Mekhtoulee, had denounced him to
the Russians for double-dealing. He had been arrested, kept chained to a cannon
by the detestable Khan of Mekhtoulee and then dispatched to Russian
Headquarters under an escort of an officer and forty-five men.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> It
was winter and the passes over the mountains were deep in snow. Hadji Murad’s hands were tied as he
plodded along through the snow and for good measure he was roped to a
Russian. But he had not given up
hope. Picking his moment carefully, he waited until he and his escort were
passing along a narrow ledge above a yawning chasm. Then with a violent jerk he threw himself over the edge, dragging
his guard with him in a sudden flurry of snow and loose stones.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> It
was inconceivable that either guard or prisoner should have reached the bottom
alive. Peering over the edge, the men of the escort could see nothing. On
reaching General Headquarters the officer in charge of them had reported the
loss of his prisoner and of one of his own men and been reprimanded for his
carelessness. It never netered
anyone’s head that Hadji Murad could still be alive.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> In
fact, thought the Russian soldier had been killed outright, Hadji Murad had
somehow survived his fall. His skull was cracked and a leg and some ribs
broken, but he was still alive.
First cutting the Russian’s throat for good measure, he painfully dragged
himself to the nearest aul. There he lay up until he was strong enough to move
on.” (Maclean, 1976, p. 66)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abrek</i></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> is
a North Caucasian term. It originates from abræg, the Ossetian for a robber.
Once it was used for a person who vowed to avoid any pleasures and to be
fearless in fight. A vow could last for five years. During that period an abrek
renounced himself from any contact with friend and relatives.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Later it was spread to the anti-Russian
guerillas at the post-war North Caucasus, as well as for all illegals. Those
abreks were widely popularized as the defenders of the motherland and paupers.
Abrek lifestyle also included a lonely life in the unexplored wilderness.
Becoming aged, abreks of the West Caucasus usually devote themselves to
beekeeping. Last abrek killed by
the Soviets, 1979.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Chapter 18. The foundation of schools for the evil-born sons of
sorcerers; the discovery of the unclean sect of finger-cutters [matnahatk’] and
their death<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vach’agan, crowned by God, commanded that <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">the sons of the witches, sorcerers, heathen
priests, finger-cutters, and poisoners</b> be assembled and placed into schools
to be given religious instruction and taught the Christian way of life in order
to confirm the heathen tribes of their fathers in the faith of <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">the Trinity</b> and true worship of
God. He ordered all the boys to
gather together in his private village called Rustak, established grants, and
placed a head-master over them, and commanded them to study Christianity. When he went into the village to
perform a service of commemoration for the saints, he would sit in the school,
gather the sons of the sorcerers and heathen priests around him, and command
the crowd which encircled him, some of whom held books and others
writing-tablets in their hands, to read aloud together. And he was happier than a man who had
uncovered a rich booty. He began
to investigate the wicked sect of finger-cutters, for both [the other sect
referred to is possibly that of the poisoners which was liquidated at the same
time] are murderous sects. Whilst
he was making these inquiries, God, who loves mankind, willed that the wicked
sect should be delivered form the country by the godly king. For a long time, ever since Vach’e had
learned of their wickedness in Albania, other kings had either been unable to
capture them or had remained indifferent.
The accursed and wicked Persian marzpans often caught them, howeve,r but
they released them again in exchange for bribes. But one day, when they were performing the evil act of
finger-cutting in a cave in a wood on the banks of the river Kur and had bound
a boy to four sticks by his thumbs and big toes and were flaying him alive,
another younger boy chanced to walk along a nearby path. Hearing the groaning, he went in and
saw the evil acts of the murderous criminals; and they pursued him with the
intention of seizing him also, but he ran away and dived into the Kur. There happened to be a tree on an islet
in the middle of the river, and he made for this and climbed it without the
criminals finding out. He
recognized the men, escaped, crossed the river, and hastened to relate
everything to the king. When the
king heard this, he offered up prayers and thanksgiving to Christ, lover of
Man, and commanded the clergy to fast and to pray that this wicked idolatry
might be uncovered and extirpated form the country, for Satan had such a hold
over the minds of his minions that it had never yet been possible to make the
members of the evil sect confess.
The king ordered the arrest of the men who had been seen committing the
murder and many other men who were known by repute, but when they put them to
the test with many beatings and cruel tortures, they were unable to make the
criminals confess. He ordered a
mixture of scalding vinegar and borax to be poured up their nostrils while they
were laid out on the ground, and their eyes turned white and rolled in their
heads, but even throughout that dreadful torture they denied everything and
would not confess. Since God had
made it possible, however, as we said above, to efface the evil sect from the
kingdom through the king, the latter cleverly devised a method whereby to make
them confess, and he ordered them to be taken to the scene of the murder. First of all, he commanded one of them
who was younger than the rest to be released, and to him he solemnly swore as
follows: “I shall not command you
to be put to death if you confess and truthfully reveal to us the details of
this devil-worship.” And falling
on his face, the young man began to divulge the secrets of the evil sect: “<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The
devil appears in human form</b> and orders <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">three
ceremonies</b> (dask’) to be held, <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">each
one comprising three men</b>; these are not to be wounded or slain, but while
still alive are each to have the skin and thumb of the right hand removed and
drawn with the skin over the chest to the little finger of the left hand; the
little finger is then to be cut and broken off inside [the skin]. The same is to be done to the feet
while the victim is still alive, and then he is to be slain and flayed, arranged
and placed in a basket. When the
time appointed for the wicked service arrives, <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">a folding iron chair is set up, the feet of which are in the shape of
human feet</b>, and which many of us saw brought there. A valuable garment is placed upon the
chair, and when <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">the devil</b> comes, he
dons this garment, sits on the chair, and taking a weapon, he examines the skin
of the man [var. “taking the skin of the nine men”] together with the
fingers. If one is unable to
acquire the stipulated [victim], he orders the <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">bark to be stripped from a tree</b> and an ox or a sheep to be offered
to him, and he eats and drinks with the evil congregation. A saddled and harnessed horse is held
ready, and mounting the horse, <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">he
gallops it to a standstill</b>; <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">then he
becomes invisible and disappears</b>.
This he repeats <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">every year</b>.”
[*The horse played an important role in Caucasian ceremonies. In the present passage the horse is
doubtless the sulis cxeni (soul-horse) intended to accompany the soul fo the
victim in the after-life]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> He
pointed out a man and woman belonging to the wicked sect, and others confessed
in the same manner. The king then
commanded the man who had told him all this as follows: “Your life is spared in accordance with
my oath. Now, however, do to them
as they did to others.” And the
man performed the things to which he had confessed upon many of them in the
presence of the royal camp, while half of them were taken off to their own
villages and were slain in like manner in each place. And the king commanded many <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">poisoners</b> to be killed, for that sect adhered to the form of
worship in which <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">the Devil</b> would <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">each year</b> order a man to be given the
poison and killed; and if one was unable to give it to a stranger, the devil
would torment him until he gave the deadly poison to one of his own
family. There were other idolatrous
sects who maintained that there was one demon who made those refusing to
worship wickedness blind, and another who gave them spots; and if any should
betray another, the witchcraft of evil demons would bring upon him the
afflictions of blindness and spots.
These were seized by the king and removed from the world in dire
torment. Others also he purged
form the kingdom of the Albanians like a brave and virtuous husbandman tending
his fields with compassion and love, uprooting the thistles and tares and scattering
and sowing the good seed to bear fruit <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">thirtyfold</b>
and <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">sixtyfold </b>and an <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">hundredfold</b>. Then almighty and merciful God, observing the beauty of the
noble conduct of this man and beholding with what diligence he strove to do the
will of God, bestowed upon him the relics of the most holy martyrs in Christ
from the place where the spiritual and ineffable treasure lay hidden. [pp.
29-32]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cf. THUGEE<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nino asked a certain Jewish woman what all
this meant. She answered that it
was their custom to go up into the presence of their supreme god, who was
unlike any other idol. When St.
Nino heard this, she climbed up with the people to see the idol called Armazi,
and placed herself near it in a crevice in the rock. There was a great noise, and the king and all the people
quaked with fear before the image.
Nino saw the standing figure of a man made of copper. His body was clothed in a golden coat
of armour, and he had a gold helmet on his head. His shoulder-pieces and eyes were made from emeralds and
beryl stones. In his hand he held
a sword as bright as a lightning flash, which turned round in his grasp, and
nobody dared touch the idol on pain of death.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> They
proclaimed, “If there is anyone here who despises the glory of the great god
Armazi, or sides with those Hebrews who ignore the priests of sun-worship or
worship a certain strange deity who is the Son of the God of Heavne—if any of
these evil persons are among us, let them be struck down by the sword of him
who is feared by all the world.”<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> When
they had spoken these words, they all worshipped the idol in fear and
trembling. On its right there
stood another image, made of gold, with the face of a man. Its name was Gatsi, and to the left of
it was a silver idol with a human face, the name of which was Gaim. These were the gods of the Georgian
people. [Georgian Life of Saint Nino, Lang 23-24]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Now in the Book of Nimrod, which King Mirian
possessed, he read the story of the building of the tower, when Nimrod heard a
voice from heaven saying, “I am Michael, appointed by God to be commander of
the east. In future times a King
will come from heaven to be a despised member of a despised race. But the terror of His name will put an
end to worldly pleasures. Kings
will forsake their realms to seek for poverty. He will heed you in your sorrow and deliver you.” Then
Mirian saw that the evidence of the Old and New Testaments was confirmed by the
Book of Nimrod.” (28-29)<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">+
check syllable type against Voynich MS; Voynich = Iberian?<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></u>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Projects for Future Research<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">1. Libraries and
Manuscript Sources<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a. National Centre of
Manuscripts, Tbilisi: <o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
• Obtain additional pages from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> (hand-copy, at
least; possibly more digital reproductions can be obtained).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
• Get Tamara Abuladze (curator of
Persian and Arabic manuscripts) to show me the MS of ‘Ali Qushji used by
Vakht’ang VI, and the extant MSS works written by the king.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
• Look at the “Complete
Time-Keeper” and other astrological MSS, including A24 (written by Efrem
Mtsire, ca. 1100, on the 12 signs), A442 (15<sup>th</sup> century,
calendrical), A684 (11<sup>th</sup> century, cosmological), A718 (14<sup>th</sup>
century, descriptions of lunar days), A889 (late 18<sup>th</sup>/early 19<sup>th</sup>
century, astrological), H503 (1808, re. Moon, stars, includes an ephemeris),
S5237 (19<sup>th</sup> century, science of the Sun and Moon), 19<sup>th</sup>
century version of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia,</i>
look through the Institute’s catalogue and Kevanishvili’s catalogue (1951).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
• Inventory available Astrological,
Geomantic, and Herbal MSS</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
• Any Greek, Latin, Arabic,
Persian, or Armenian Astrological MSS?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
• Has anyone heard of the Chechen <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">seeda-zhaina</i> (“star book”)?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
• archival or published information
on Aleksandre Archilovich (imprisoned in Sweden, d. 1713) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
• Try to get introduced to Zaza
Aleksidze (expert on Old Albanian literature)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
• Obtain digital reproductions of
additional MSS if possible</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">b. National Parliamentary
Library, Tbilisi:<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Law-Code of Vakht’ang VI (considered a “holy book” among the Khevsurs)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
L.Z. Sumbadze, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gori</i> (Moscow, 1950)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Brosset, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Histoire de la Georgie </i>(2
vols.)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
works on Caucasian folklore, superstition, Georgian calendar</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
archival or published information on Aleksandre Archilovich (imprisoned in
Sweden, d. 1713)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">c. Institute of
Manuscripts, Baku:<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
get to know Dr. Farid Alakbarli, who will introduce me to the Director, Dr.
Mammad Adilov</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Inventory available Astrological, Geomantic, and Herbal MSS</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
• Any Greek, Latin, Arabic,
Persian, or Armenian Astrological MSS?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
• Has anyone heard of the Chechen <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">seeda-zhaina</i> (“star book”)?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
• Obtain digital reproductions of MSS,
if possible.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">d. Matenadaran (Institute of Ancient Manuscripts), Yerevan<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Try to get an introduction through Dr. Paul Crego (Library of Congress).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Inventory available MSS, as above; obtain digital reproductions if possible.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">e. Bodleian Library, Oxford<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Try to get access to relevant MSS in the Wardrop Collection (Books and
Manuscripts from the Caucasus) [I am hoping to study the catalogue of the
Wardrop Collection before I leave]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">f. Swedish National
Archives<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
archival or published information on Aleksandre Archilovich (imprisoned in
Sweden, d. 1713)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">2. People to Visit<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Buba Kudava (visit, have him tell me about Tao-Klarjeti, discuss his
photographs of ruined churches there; see what his wife Nino has to say)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
• Irakli Simonia (visit, ask questions,
discuss future collaboration; see if he can introduce me to other professors)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Nino Khonelidze (arrange Georgian lessons with her aunt, maybe going through <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vepxis T’q’aosani</i> or Sulkhan Saba
Orbeliani).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Have Nino Khonelidze introduce me to astrologers (snowball survey)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Call various people who gave me their phone-numbers (snowball survey re.
astrology, superstitions, mirrors, ghost-stories, herbs and drugs) [informal
questionnaire?]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Tamar Abuladze (try to cultivate some level of friendship, discuss future
collaboration)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Genadi Gvenetadze (?) [dangerous and inconvenient person]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Study the “cult of personal arms” in the Caucasus—try to ascertain what
percentage of people are armed (concealed weapons, guns in trunk, guns at
home).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">3. Localities to Visit<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Any and all old churches (to study architecture for astrological symbolism):
Mtsxeta, Tbilisi, Ananuri, Ilkorta, Gremi and elsewhere in Kakheti)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Svaneti (see what I can learn about Svan cosmological and astrological ideas;
already have ties here through Tony Hanmer and Dali; visit Dali “the witch” in
Ushguli, especially ask her about the 11-hour clock and the taxidermied goats,
mirrors)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Batumi (try to get introduced to the Abkhazian community there)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Pankisi Gorge (start with Kist House of Culture in Duisi; try to get introduced
to the Chechen community there)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Ksiani Valley (Ilkorta Church, see if Maia has connections there; try to
collect folk-memories of Shanhse of Ksiani [early 18<sup>th</sup> century] who
rebelled against Vakht’ang VI, and the military operations of that period; try
to get introduced to Ossetian-Georgian community in the vicinity).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Khevsureti and Tusheti (study the architecture, churches, and cemeteries of the
region, esp. the death-house in Shatili, for astrological symbolism)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Kutaisi (examine churches for astrological symbolism; try to collect
folk-memories of the murders of Queen Darejan of Imereti (1679) and King Simon
of Imereti (1701).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Gori (try to collect folk-memories of 17<sup>th</sup> century siege of
Goris-tsixe)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Ganja, Azerbaijan (try to collect folk-memories of the period of Georgian rule,
esp. the campaign of Vakht’ang VI [1722]).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Etchmiadzin, Armenia (study the church complex for astrological symbolism)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Zestaphoni (visit police station where Lt.-Col.
Akaki Eliava was killed [9 July 2000], try to interview people who witnessed
it)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Jikhashkari (try to find the house where Zviad Gamsakhurdia died [31 Dec 1993],
try to interview people who witnessed it)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
See what towns and localities I can access via “snowball” procedure </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Visit and photograph old cemeteries in Tbilisi and elsewhere</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Study the Georgian bee-keeping tradition</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Armenia and Azerbaijan (various localities may become accessible)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">**Depending on what
happens, we have to be flexible; we may have the opportunity to visit
Daghestan, Iran, or Eastern Turkey if the situation changes.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">4. Ongoing Research and
Development (can be pursued from here)<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Continue to develop my spoken Georgian, Abkhaz, Chechen</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Continue working on Russian (perhaps enroll in the course this fall)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Learn to read Armenian; keep working on Persian</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Start learning Svan language</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Learn about the Georgian calendar system and year-designations</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Finish going through <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vepxis T’q’aosani</i>
for cosmological ideas</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Continue learning about Georgian folklore and superstitions</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Continue reading and translating <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis
Codnis C’igni</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Start reading <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kosmos</i> [ms N883]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
• Find the article on a Georgian
Herbal MSS which I read in 1983</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
• Learn about compass directions
and their color-associations in various cultures</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Read <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vepxis T’q’aosani</i> in Georgian</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Read and translate Tamar <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abuladze’s
Vaxt’ang Meekvsis Mtargmnelobiti Moghvasheoba<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Collate the numbers, days of the week, months, directions, in all the Caucasian
languages.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Continue reading the Nart Sagas and other Caucasian folklore</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Study Svan proverbs</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Study Vaxushti’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kartlis Cxovreba </i>(18<sup>th</sup>
century Georgian history and geography)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
•
Study two articles about Armenian astrological works, learn about the corpus of
Armenian literature.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
WORKS
CITED</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Allen, W.E.D.
(1971). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A history of the Georgian people:
From the beginning down to the Russian
conquest in the nineteenth century</i>. New York: Barnes & Noble.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Allen, W.S.
(1965). On one-vowel systems. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Lingua</i>
13: 111-124.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Baddeley, J.
(1969). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Russian conquest of the
Caucasus</i>. New York: Russell & Russell.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Chenciner, R.,
Ismailov, G., & Magomedkhanov, M. (2006). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tattooed mountain women and
spoon boxes of Daghestan: Magic medicine symbols in silk, stone, wood and flesh. </i>London: Bennett & Bloom/Desert
Hearts.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Colarusso, J.
(1980). Ethnographic Information
on a Wild Man of the Caucasus. In M. Halpin
& M. Ames (Eds.), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Manlike monsters on
trial: Early records and modern evidence</i>
(pp. 255-264). Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 1980.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Colarusso, J.
(2002). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nart sagas from the Caucasus:
Myths and legends from the Circassians,
Abazas, Abkhaz, and Ubykhs</i>. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Crump, T. (1990). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
anthropology of numbers</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Dickens, M. (2004). Medieval Syriac Historians’
Perceptions of the Turks. MPhil Dissertation
in Aramaic and Syriac Studies, Faculty of Oriental Studies, University
of Cambridge. Retrieved May 20, 2009, from http://www.oxuscom.com/Medieval_Syriac_Historians_on_the_Turks.pdf<o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-53177540932861696112012-01-28T20:40:00.000-08:002012-01-28T21:21:20.361-08:00The Narrative Mode of Horoscopic Interpretation (2009)<!--StartFragment-->
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Narrative Mode of Horoscopic Interpretation <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Timothy P. Grove, Biola
University<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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</span>29<sup>th</sup> Annual Conference<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>3 April 2009<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;">Abstract</span></u></b><u><span style="font-family: TimesNewRomanPS-BoldMT;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">“The Narrative Mode
of Horoscopic Interpretation” <o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">(Timothy P. Grove,
Biola University)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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Mediaeval astrological texts are replete with
characterizations and similitudes of various kinds, which were used to describe
and understand various astrological relationships. For example, when Saturn is posited in the last 20 degrees
of Taurus, “he is an old man with feeble members, a ruined body, worn-out,
sapped of strength, and wailing aloud about his misfortune,” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Albohazen Haly filii Abenragel libri de
iudiciis astrorum</i>, I.4). Passages
like these present an attractive alternative to the aphoristic mode of horoscopic analysis according to abstract
rules. Instead, many of the old
writers employed what we may call the narrative mode, where the details
of the horoscope are allowed to generate a kind of story. Here, the planets are personified as
men and women interacting in various ways (friendly or unfriendly). These interactions and conflicts work
themselves out in a complex and colorful environment which arises organically
from the traditional descriptions of the signs of the zodiac and their
subdivisions. Examples of this narrative material can be found in many of the
early astrological texts, most notably Haly Abenragel (11<sup>th</sup>
century), Abraham Ibn Ezra (12<sup>th</sup> century), William Lilly (17<sup>th</sup>
century), and Chaucer’s astrological poem, “The Complaint of Mars.”</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></u></b>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u>Outline<o:p></o:p></u></b></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
Four Modes of
Horoscopic Interpretation<o:p></o:p></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal">
I. The Aphoristic
Mode <o:p></o:p></div>
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A.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';">
</span>Example:
“If . . . [Saturn and Jupiter] . . . both are in aspect to the ascendant, this
indicates infinite riches and great good fortune, especially if one of the two
is also in aspect to the waxing moon.” (Firmicus Maternus, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mathesis </i>VI.iii.2)<o:p></o:p></div>
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B.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';">
</span>Most
Hellenistic astrological manuals are collections of such aphorisms.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-indent: -.25in;">
C.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';">
</span>Developed
from Babylonian omen texts. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
II. The Descriptive
Mode<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .75in; text-indent: -.25in;">
A.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';">
</span>Example:
[Mercury in Pisces]: “the party Stutters, or is very slow of speech, of small
Stature, pale Visage, sickly, careless; much Hair everywhere on his body, given
to mirth, dancing, drunkenness.” (William Thrasher, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jubar Astrologicum</i>, 1671, p. 53).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .75in; text-indent: -.25in;">
B.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';">
</span>Common
in Hellenistic and later sources.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
III. The Arithmetic
Mode<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .75in; text-indent: -.25in;">
A.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';">
</span>Planetary
strengths (dignities and debilities) are analyzed using a point-system.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .75in; text-indent: -.25in;">
B.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';">
</span>Developed
by the Arabs, used by Renaissance-period European astrologers during the
Renaissance.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
IV. The Narrative
Mode<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .75in; text-indent: -.25in;">
A.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span>The
details of the horoscope are allowed to generate a kind of story.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .75in; text-indent: -.25in;">
B.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span>Example:
“In . . . [the last 20º of Taurus, Saturn] . . . is an old man with feeble
members, a ruined body, worn-out, sapped of strength, and wailing aloud about
his misfortune,” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Albohazen Haly filii
Abenragel libri de iudiciis astrorum</i>, I.4).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo4; tab-stops: list .75in; text-indent: -.25in;">
C.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span>Components
of the Narrative Mode</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
1. Personification of the Planets</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
2. Characterization of Planetary Relationships.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
3. Description of Zodiacal Places, e.g. Scorpio: “Gardens,
Orchards, </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 87.0pt;">
Vineyards, Ruinous Houses neer
Waters; muddy, moorish Grounds, stinking Lakes, Quagmires, Sinks, the
Kitchen or Larder, Wash-house” (William Lilly, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Christian Astrology</i>, 1647, p. 97).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
D. Any horoscope could easily generate
many pages of narrative material!</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
E. The Narrative Mode enables the
astrologer to clearly visualize and </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
understand all sorts of astrological relationships and combinations.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 55.0pt; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo5; tab-stops: list 55.0pt; text-indent: -19.0pt;">
F.<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span>Found
in mediaeval and Renaissance texts (11th-17th centuries). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 55.0pt;">
Geoffrey Chaucer’s astrological poem, “Complaint
of Mars” (circa 1385), is a notable example.<span style="color: white; font-family: Arial; font-size: 32pt;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p>[complete PowerPoint to be posted later]</o:p></div>Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-84057899224170258812012-01-28T20:34:00.001-08:002012-01-28T20:34:41.432-08:00Ut Supra Ita Infra (2009)<!--StartFragment-->
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Ut Supra Ita Infra<o:p></o:p></span></u></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Once
dismissed as a relic of the unenlightened past, Astrology has re</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ë</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">merged with renewed vigor.
Its claims once again invite serious consideration, despite several centuries
of contempt and ridicule from astronomers and scientists working under the
Modern paradigm. The remarkable re</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">ë</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">mergence of Astrology is a corollary to the fractal revolution in
mathematics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As it turns out, a
number of old astrological concepts and techniques foreshadowed this line of
mathematical thought, especially the idea of self-similarity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Indeed, the central aphorism of
Astrology, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ut supra ita infra</i> (“as
above, so below”), is an elegant statement of this principle.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
an imprecise and general sense, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ut supra
ita infra</i> may be understood as establishing a correspondence between
celestial phenomena and events on earth, and that of course is the controlling
assumption of Astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But the
aphorism has other implications as well:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>for one thing, a continuing downward progression is implied—<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">infra</i> being taken to refer not only to
mundane events, but to units on a still smaller scale, such as the human body
or the atom.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is obviously a
fractal conception, with patterns on smaller scales demonstrating fractal
similarity to those at higher levels; indeed, the possibility (or probability)
of circular scale is implied.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also
implied is the ancient idea of the Hollow Earth—illuminated by an interior sun
(“Pellucidar”), with openings to the surface through vortices at the North and
South Poles.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Concerning this, see
Poe’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym of
Nantucket </i>(1838), Cyrus Teed’s (unfalsifiable) mathematical model known as
“Cellular Cosmogony” (1869), W.G. Emerson’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Smoky God: A Voyage to the Inner World</i> (1908), the rumors associated with
Adm. Richard E. Byrd and “Operation Highjump” (1947), and a remarkable passage
in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zohar</i>: “</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">We have learned that all
these evil types emerge from the North, and we have learned that when the North
Wind is aroused at midnight, all these evil spirits and evil aspects gather
together from the whole world and enter through the hole of the Great Abyss” </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Terumah</i> 876).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such an
idea is referenced in the mythologies and cosmogonies of many cultures,
particularly those of the Americas.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">This notion corresponds to a related idea: that in
the same way as we enter the dream-plane from waking consciousness by falling
asleep (i.e. surrendering to, waiting for, submitting to it; the well-known
image of the Sandman comes to mind—a being who cannot be summoned, and whose
coming cannot be anticipated or remembered)—in just the same way, the next
level below that one is “a dream within a dream,” and we enter it by <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">falling asleep yet again</i>, in the context
of a dream.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Indeed, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zohar</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Terumah</i> 865) states that sleep is one-sixtieth of death (the
precise meaning of this proportion will be discussed below).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>One
stumbling-block to belief in Astrology has been the lack of any demonstrable
Causal Principle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, the
principle of self-similarity obviates that consideration, as the astral
influences are not to be understood in terms of Causation, but rather in terms
of Concurrence or Synchronicity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Properly understood, the astrological system which has come down to us
from classical antiquity is a fractal of infinite complexity and terrifying
beauty—holographic and self-similar, with disturbing implications for our
understanding of the soul and its multiple (and manifold) incarnations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>With
that much said, let us proceed to a discussion of some of the specific
manifestations of the principle of self-similarity in Astrology!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">The
Zodiac in Miniature: The Dodecatemoria<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
dodecatemoria (divisions of each of the 12 signs into 12 parts) are perhaps the
most striking instance of self-similarity in the western astrological
tradition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each of the 12 signs of
the zodiac is subdivided into 12 miniature signs, so that the entire zodiac is
replicated in each of the signs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Since each sign comprises 30º of the circle, this subdivision of the
signs results in 144 dodecatemoria (12 per sign), each one comprising 2½º.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These miniature signs are distributed
in the usual order, beginning with the sign they are in—thus, the 12
dodecatemoria of Aries are Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra,
Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, and Pisces; the 12 dodecatemoria
of Taurus are Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius,
Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces, and Aries; and so on, yielding a series 144
dodecatemoria which concludes with that of Aquarius at the end of Pisces.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>There
are two ways of calculating the dodecatemorion of any given point along the
circle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first way is simply to
locate where that point falls within the matrix of the miniature zodiac.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, if there is a planet at 11
Aquarius, we count from the beginning of the sign:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Aquarius (2½º), Pisces (2½º), Aries (2½º), and Taurus (2½º),
which brings us up to 10º of Aquarius; the remaining degree will obviously fall
2/5 of the way through the dodecatemorion of Gemini—at 12 Gemini to be
exact.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each degree equates to 12º
in the miniature zodiac, each minute to 12’, and so on.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To give a further example, the
dodecatemorion of my radical Mars at 14 Cancer 19 is at 21 Sagittarius 48.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second way to perform this
calculation, which yields the same result, is simply to multiply the degrees
and minutes by 12, and then add this distance to the beginning of the sign the
original point falls in.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Returning
to the two examples just given:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>for 11 Aquarius, we multiply 11º by 12, yielding 132º.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Counting from the beginning of
Aquarius, that is four signs (Aquarius + Pisces + Aries + Taurus = 120º), with
the remaining 12º falling in Gemini—the same result as before.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For 14Can19, 14º x 12 = 168º, and 19’ x
12 = 228’ (or 3º48’), for a combined distance of 171º48’; counting from the
beginning of Cancer, that is five full signs (Cancer + Leo + Virgo + Libra +
Scorpio = 150º), with the remaining 21º48’ falling in Sagittarius, as before.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
use of dodecatemoria is well attested in traditional Astrology; and is
discussed by Ptolemy, who calls them <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">topoi</i>
(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tetrabiblos</i> I.22), by Manilius, who
divides each dodecatemorion into five half-degrees, which are assigned to the
five planets (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Astronomicon</i>
II.693-748), and by Hephaestio, who delineates the special characteristics of
all 144 dodecatemoria (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Apotelesmatica</i>
III.4); they are discussed by many other writers as well.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>However,
there is an alternative procedure for finding the dodecatemorion, which is of
great interest and possibly of even greater antiquity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It involves multiplication not by
twelve, but by THIRTEEN.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This
results in a division of each sign into 13 segments of approximately 2º18’28”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The distribution of these “dodecatemoria”
(actually triskaidekatemoria) for the sign of Aries is as follows:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo,
Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces, and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Aries again</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Likewise, the 13 dodecatemoria of Taurus begin and end with
Taurus, and so on for the remaining signs, for a total of 156 dodecatemoria.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although it appears strange at first,
this arrangement is actually more natural, since the sequence of miniature
signs continues unbroken from one sign to the next (the last dodecatemorion of
Aries is Aries, and the first dodecatemorion of Taurus is Taurus), without the
skipping of one sign which is entailed by division of the signs into 12
parts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This method is described by
Firmicus Maternus (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mathesis</i> II.15),
Vettius Valens (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Anthologia</i> I.[20]),
and Paulus Alexandrinus (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Isagoge</i> 22),
and appears to have originated as a Babylonian practice (O. Neugebauer and A.
Sachs, “The ‘Dodecatemoria’ in Babylonian Astrology,” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">AOF</i> 16 (1952-53).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Using
the 13-fold division of signs, the points mentioned above have different dodecatemoria:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>11 Aquarius has its dodecatemorion at
23 Gemini, and 14Can19 has its dodecatemorion at 6Cap07.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The easy way to do this is simply to
add the degrees and minutes of the original point to its 12-fold dodecatemorion
(12 Gemini + 11 = 23 Gemini; 21Sag48 + 14º19’ = 6Cap07).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Very often the two alternate dodecatemoria
will fall in different signs; 6Cap07 is a much more powerful position for Mars,
since Capricorn is the sign of its exaltation.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>These
two alternate systems of dodecatemoria are of great interest: the 12-fold
subdivision of signs obviously reflects the solar motion, while the 13-fold
division appears to be derived from the lunar motion (since the moon passes
through 13 signs in the course of one synodic month, or lunation).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>But
what is the meaning of the dodecatemoria?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>They are thought to be of special importance for the analysis of the
ascending degree (Hephaestio, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Apotelesmatica</i>
III.4), and the place of the moon (Bonatus, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Liber
Astronomiae</i> V.89).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Indian
astrologers maintain that a radical (natal) chart with all positions recomputed
to their dodecatemoria is the radical chart of the previous incarnation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I have looked into this matter using my
own chart.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I found that the most
recent configuration where all planets fell in the signs (not the degrees)
indicated by the dodecatemorian chart occurred around 600 B.C.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A configuration matching the precise
degrees indicated has probably not occurred since the Ice Age, at least!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Another curious feature of these
dodecatemorian charts is that the Sun, Mercury, and Venus are often widely
separated—while in real life, Mercury can never elongate more than one sign
from the Sun, and Venus no more than two.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Greater separations than these could never have been observed from the
earth in its present location.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It
is also possible to subdivide any 2½º dodecatemorion into 12 sub-dodecatemoria
(usually known among astrologers as “sub-dwads,” from the Sanskrit <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dwadashamsa</i> [dodecatemorion]).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This way, each sign is subdivided into
144 parts of 12’30”, and the whole zodiac into 1728 of these.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This procedure is occasionally done,
though the astrological literature contains few references to it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These sub-dodecatemoria would
presumably correspond to the planetary positions of a still earlier
incarnation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Division by 13 could
be used instead (dividing each sign into 156 or 169 parts, and the whole zodiac
into 1872 or 2028 parts), though I have never come across a reference to this.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Obviously,
such a procedure could be continued <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ad
infinitum</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, it must be
understood that even where the actual position is known with great precision,
the margin of error increases with each division.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, my radical Sun at 23 Sagittarius 45’07” yields a dodecatemorion
of 15 Virgo 01’24” (with a margin of error of 12”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This in turn yields a sub-dodecatemorion of 0 Pisces 16’48”,
this time with a margin of error of 2’24”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Repeating the operation yet again, we get 3 Pisces 21’36”
(just 3’ from my radical Ascendant at 3 Pisces 24, but now with a margin of
error [28’48”] amounting to nearly half a degree.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Descending still deeper into the fractal, the next position
is 10 Aries 19’12” (margin of error = 5º45’36”), and next (the position of the
radical Sun at the fifth incarnation before the present one?) is 3 Leo 50’24”
(margin of error = 69º07’12” [!]).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It would be pointless to proceed any further. </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The whole point of the dodecatemoria
and sub-dodecatemoria is to identify the planet which rules the sign associated
with each successively smaller arc.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Mathematical precision doesn’t matter as long as that planet can be
identified.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For this reason,
starting with a planetary position precise to one second of arc, its dodecatemorion,
sub-dodecatemorion, and sub-sub-dodecatemorion can be reliably identified; but
there is no way of going further because the margin of error will exceed 2½º.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
doctrine of dodecatemoria and the whole associated line of reasoning implies
that any given radical horoscope is itself the dodecatemorian chart of some
larger horoscope at the next unit of scale.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Using 11 Aquarius as an example, if instead of multiplying
we <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">divide</i> by 12, we find a point of
origin at 0 Aquarius 55.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However,
since each sign contains the entire zodiac, each of the 12 signs contains a
point which, when multiplied by 12, will also yield a dodecatemorion at 11
Aquarius.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These 12 points are as
follows:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>0Aqu55, 28Pis25, 25Ari55,
23Tau25, 20Gem55, 18Can25, 15Leo55, 13Vir25, 10Lib55, 8Sco25, 5Sag55, and
3Cap25.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Notice that these points
are all 27½º (11 dodecatemoria) apart.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>These 12 alternate points would logically refer to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">12 parallel future lives</i>, of which more will be said later.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For now, let it suffice to say that
there is just <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">one way down</i>, but <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">12 ways up</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>If
the same procedure is applied to the 13-fold division of signs, there will be
two different points in Aquarius that will yield a dodecatemorion of 11
Aquarius, and one point in each of the remaining signs that will yield that
same result, for a total of 13 (one way down and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">thirteen</i> ways up).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
addition, </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">any
point in a horoscope is one of 12 (or 13) that lead to the same dodecatemorion;
however, the other 11 (or 12) points do not exist in the horoscope itself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They exist in 11 (or) 12 parallel
horoscopes on the same level of scale as the first one, but these are not
mutually accessible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a set of
parallel possibilities, they could only be accessible from a higher level of
scale.</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="display: none; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt; mso-hide: all;">How<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Through
the Looking Glass: <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Antiscia</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Contrascia</i><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Rather
than looking for parallels of declination as modern practitioners do,
traditional astrologers had recourse to the concept of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">antiscia</i> (lit. “anti-shadows”), which yields similar results.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The zodiac was divided in half by means
of a line drawn from 0 Cancer to 0 Capricorn (the summer and winter solstice
points), and this line was treated like the surface of a mirror—so that any
point on one side of the line had its <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">antiscion</i>,
or mirror-point, on the other side of the line.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, a planet at 10 Cancer (just 10º in advance of the
summer solstice point) has its <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">antiscion</i>
at 20 Gemini (10º behind the summer solstice point).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>11 Aquarius is 41º ahead of 0 Capricorn, so its <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">antiscion</i> falls at 19 Scorpio.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>My Mars at 14Can19 has its <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">antiscion</i> at 15Gem41.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These mirror-points are regarded as
having an influence comparable to the planet’s bodily presence at that point;
however, authorities differ as to whether this influence is confined to the
specific degree of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">antiscion</i>, or
whether it extends to the entire sign. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">contrascia</i> are
an alternate set of mirror-points computed in the same way, but using the
Aries-Libra (equinoctial) axis in place of the solstitial axis.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An easy way to find the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">contrascion</i> of a given point is simply
to find the opposition of its <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">antiscion</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, since the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">antiscion</i> of 11 Aquarius is at 19 Scorpio, its <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">contrascion</i> would be exactly 180º away, at 19 Taurus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To do this the long way, we would
measure the 49º separating 11 Aquarius from 0 Aries, then measure off the same
distance ahead of 0 Aries, which will yield the same result of 19 Taurus. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">antiscia</i>
are analogous to bodily conjunctions, while the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">contrascia</i> may be likened to oppositions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Thus,
in the case of two planets at 20 Gemini and 10 Cancer, although there is no
aspectual relationship between them (they are in neighboring signs), they are
still in a relationship analogous to a conjunction, owing to their <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">antiscia</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Likewise, if the two planets are at 20 Gemini and 10
Capricorn, they are inconjunct (five signs apart), but still in a kind of
opposition through their <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">contrascia</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If all the values of any given
horoscope are converted to their <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">antiscia</i>
(or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">contrascia</i>), the resulting
horoscope will be a perfect mirror-image of the first one—if you hold the
horoscope up to a mirror, you will get precisely the same result.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This
idea of mirror-images manifests itself in several other doctrines of
traditional western Astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
Primary Direction, two planets are said to be “in mundane parallel” when they
are the same proportional distance along their diurnal arcs from one of the
Angles (Ascendant, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Medium Coeli</i>,
Descendant, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Imum Coeli</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Similarly, the very ancient system of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">paranatellonta</i> associates stars (and
planets) which reach two of the angles simultaneously; as for example, one star
is rising at the same time another is culminating or setting.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In both these cases, the Angles
themselves function as mirrors.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>All
of this brings to mind a very interesting passage from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zohar</i>, which is worth setting out in full: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">"And you shall make fifty clasps of brass..."
(Shemot 26:11). Rabbi Elazar and Rabbi Aba <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">were sitting one night. When it became dark, they
entered a garden that was by the Sea of Tiberias. In the meantime, they saw two
stars that were moving, one from one side and the <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">other from the other side. Then they met and disappeared
(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Terumah</i> 831).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">One
possible way to understand this has to do with reflection and mirror-images
(indeed, there is an explicit reference to a mirror a little further on, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Terumah</i> 840).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Notice that R. Elazar and R. Aba were sitting by the
sea.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This fact provides one way of
explaining the phenomenon described here:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>One of the stars was setting in the west.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The other star was the reflection of the first star on the
surface of the sea.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the star
set, its reflection rose nearer to the horizon.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When the star touched the horizon, its reflection rose to meet
it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When the star dropped below
the horizon, both the star and its reflection disappeared from view.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">The
Black and White Keys: Reduction of the Zodiac to Binary<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It
is also possible to subsume the entire zodiac under its first two signs, Aries
and Taurus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are several
reasons for doing this.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>First, any
two consecutive signs form a complementary system:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>odd-numbered signs (like Aries) are masculine and diurnal,
while even-numbered signs (like Taurus) are feminine and nocturnal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such an arrangement suggests an
alternating binary cycle (day + night), which obviates the remaining ten signs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Second, in addition to their cardinal
position at the beginning of the zodiac, Aries and Taurus have special
significance:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Aries is both the
exaltation of the Sun and the diurnal domicile of Mars, while Taurus is both
the exaltation of the Moon and the nocturnal domicile of Venus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, in addition to their unique
association with the two luminaries, these two signs are precise counterparts
in terms of both sect and gender and so must be understood as a unit
(comparable to a married couple).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Third, since the 60º of the two signs combined can be understood as a
complete revolution (like the 60 minutes of a clockface), they can be set equal
to the 360º of the zodiacal circle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This arrangement is known as the 60-degree dial, and can be visualized
as a circle with two hemispheres—a dark hemisphere below the horizon (Taurus)
and a bright hemisphere above the horizon (Aries); since the Taurus hemisphere
is about to rise, this implies that the 60 degrees are to be counted in a
counterclockwise direction, beginning from the first degree of Aries on the
Descendant (western horizon).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By
this equation, 1º of Aries-Taurus corresponds to 6º of the complete zodiac, and
5º of Aries-Taurus corresponds to one of the 12 signs; moreover, the 60
degree-units of the Aries-Taurus circle will be seen to correspond to the 60
planetary terms—another very important way of subdividing the zodiac!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is also very interesting that,
according to the equation just established (60º = 360º), any half-sign (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hora</i>) will correspond to a 2½º
dodecatemorion in Aries-Taurus; this is yet another indication that the
self-similarity of the dodecatemoria is foundational to the entire system.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">The signs and subdivisions of the zodiac are
assigned to the planets according to a traditional arrangement:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>two of the twelve signs (Cancer and
Leo) are ruled by the Moon and Sun, respectively, while the ten remaining signs
are ruled by the five planets (Aries and Scorpio by Mars, Taurus and Libra by
Venus, Gemini and Virgo by Mercury, Sagittarius and Pisces by Jupiter, and
Capricorn and Aquarius by Saturn); each of the twelve signs is also divided
into three Decanates (10º each), and these are also assigned to the seven
planets, this time in the Chaldaean order
(Saturn—Jupiter—Mars—Sun—Venus—Mercury—Moon), beginning and ending with Mars;
finally, each of the 12 signs is subdivided into five Terms, which vary in
extent from 2º to 12º, and these are assigned to the five planets (not
including the Luminaries), in a traditional order which varies from sign to
sign.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, alongside this
well-known arrangement, there is corresponding system which subdivides the
zodiac according to a binary arrangment: as noted, the odd-numbered signs are
assigned to the Sun (positive, masculine, diurnal), and the even-numbered signs
to the Moon (negative, feminine, nocturnal); next, each of the 12 signs is
divided into two <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Horae</i> (15º each),
and these are also assigned to the Sun and Moon (the first <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hora</i> of a diurnal sign to the Sun, the second to the Moon; the
first <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hora</i> of a nocturnal sign to the
Moon, the second to the Sun); finally, the 36 Decanates are also divided into
halves called Quinances (5º each, also called Quinaries), and these are also
assigned to the Luminaries according to the following arrangement:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>for odd-numbered signs,
Sun—Moon—Moon—Sun—Sun—Moon; for even-numbered (nocturnal) signs,
Moon—Sun—Sun—Moon—Moon—Sun.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This
binary arrangement compensates for the fact that the Luminaries have no Terms
and each rules only a single sign.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The 60 degrees of Aries and Taurus comprise a minimal unit in terms of
the binary analysis of the zodiac, which may be summarized as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">1-30 Aries (Sun)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>1-15
Aries (Sun)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>1-5
Aries (Sun)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>6-10
Aries (Moon)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>11-15
Aries (Moon)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>16-30
Aries (Moon)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>16-20
Aries (Sun)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>21-25
Aries (Sun)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>26-30
Aries (Moon)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">1-30 Taurus (Moon)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>1-15
Taurus (Moon)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>1-5
Taurus (Moon)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>6-10
Taurus (Sun)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>11-15
Taurus (Sun)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>16-30
Taurus (Sun)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>16-20
Taurus (Moon)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>21-25
Taurus (Moon)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>26-30
Taurus (Sun)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">It
should be mentioned that there is also a traditional scheme of Masculine and
Feminine Degrees; however, these are distributed irregularly (for example, the
first 8 degrees of Aries are masculine, the 9<sup>th</sup> is feminine, the 10<sup>th</sup>
through 15<sup>th</sup> are masculine, the 16<sup>th</sup> through 22<sup>nd</sup>
feminine, and the last 8 masculine; the first 5 degrees of Taurus are feminine,
the 6<sup>th</sup> through 11<sup>th</sup> are masculine, the 12<sup>th</sup>
through 17<sup>th</sup> feminine, the 18<sup>th</sup> through 21<sup>st</sup>
masculine, the 22<sup>nd</sup> through 24<sup>th</sup> feminine, and the last 6
masculine—and so on, with a different distribution for every sign); if this
factor were added to the scheme tabulated above, obviously Aries-Taurus would
no longer comprise a minimal unit.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Aries
and Taurus are given special attention in the Voynich Manuscript; unlike the
pages devoted to the other ten signs (one sign per page), the two halves (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">horae</i>) of Aries and Taurus are portrayed
as four separate circles of 15º and appear on four separate pages (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">70v</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">71r</i>,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">71v</i> [a foldout]).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In each case, the degrees are arranged
in two concentric circles:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>an
inner circle of five degrees and an outer circle of ten degrees—perhaps
reflecting the 5:10 (or 10:5) assignment of solar and lunar degrees to the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">horae</i>, as seen in the tabulation
above.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For inexplicable reasons,
the Voynich MS appears to have reversed the traditional arrangement of the four
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">horae</i>, making them dark-light for
Aries and light-dark for Taurus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A
possible explanation for this is that the matutine quadrants (from the
Ascendant to the Midheaven, and from the Descendant to the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Imum Coeli</i>) are described as masculine and diurnal, while the
vespertine quadrants (from the Midheaven to the Descendant, and from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Imum Coeli</i> to the Ascendant) are
feminine and nocturnal; so according to the hemispheric arrangement described
above, the first half of Aries corresponds to a vespertine (dark) quadrant. <a href="" name="OLE_LINK1"></a><a href="" name="OLE_LINK2"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><o:p></o:p></span></a></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Be
that as it may, it is possible to translate any zodiacal position into its
corresponding position within the Aries-Taurus system simply by taking its
distance from 0 Aries in degrees and minutes and dividing by six.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This way, the first half of the zodiac
(Aries—Virgo) will fall to Aries, and the second half (Libra—Pisces) to Taurus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, a planetary position at 11
Aquarius (311º from the beginning of the zodiac ÷ 6 = 51º50’) would correspond
to 21Tau50, in the second (diurnal) half of Taurus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>My Mars at 14Can19 would correspond to 17Ari23’10”, in the
second (nocturnal) half of Aries (104º19’ ÷ 6 = 17º23’10”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Indian
Astrology unites any pair of diurnal and nocturnal signs through the use of the
so-called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">trimsamsas</i> (thirtieths of
signs).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As in western Astrology,
such a pair forms a minimal binary unit; this is accomplished through an
ingenious scheme involving an irregular distribution of degrees to the five
planets, somewhat analogous to that of the western planetary terms (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">termini</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the odd-numbered signs, the first five degrees are
allotted to Mars, the next five degrees to Saturn, the next eight to Jupiter,
the next seven to Mercury, and the last five to Venus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For even-numbered signs, the order is
reversed:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the first five degrees
are allotted to Venus, the next seven to Mercury, the next eight to Jupiter,
the next five to Saturn, and the last five to Mars.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the odd-numbered signs, these trimsamsas are
specifically associated with the diurnal signs ruled by these planets (Aries,
Aquarius, Sagittarius, Gemini, Libra), while those in the even-numbered signs
are associated with their nocturnal signs (Taurus, Virgo, Pisces, Capricorn,
Scorpio).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This scheme can also be
used to generate an extremely bizarre miniature zodiac of ten signs, with
Cancer and Leo (the signs ruled by the luminaries) omitted, and which is
probably best left alone. <o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>I
cannot conclude this discussion of the 60-degree dial without some mention of
Geomancy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is an ancient
procedure, apparently developed among the Arabs, for generating a
“mock-horoscope,” without reference to actual celestial phenomena.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Using a stick in the sand or a pen and
paper, the geomancer would make 16 rows of random marks.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each row was then counted to determine
whether it contained an odd or even number of marks; then, with the application
of a few simple rules, the resulting array of 16 one’s and two’s could be
converted into a crude horoscope.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK4;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK3;"><u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Back to Sumer: The Sexagesimal
System<o:p></o:p></span></u></span></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK4;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK3;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
convention of dividing degrees (and hours) into 60 minutes, and of subdividing
minutes into 60 seconds goes back to the Sumerians, who used a sexagesimal
(base 60) number system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Though
seldom used today, there was also a division of seconds into 60 “thirds,” of
thirds into 60 “fourths,” and so on <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ad infinitessimale</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Now what would happen if we worked in
the other direction?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Starting once
again with a degree, we would presumably multiply it by sixty to obtain an arc
of 60º, or two signs—leading us back once again to the 60-degree dial of
Aries-Taurus, the minimal binary unit of the zodiac!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This discovery has profound implications.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If we multiply two signs (60º) by
sixty, we get 120 signs (3600º), or ten times around the circle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That equates to ten solar years, which
bears a suspicious resemblance to the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">decennium</i>
of 129 (30-day) months (10 years, 217 1/3 days).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The fractal self-similarities inherent in this system are
obvious; this concept may even underlie that enigmatic statement in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zohar</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Terumah</i> 865) to the effect that “whenever that Other Side awakens,
all the creatures of the earth taste the taste of death, one-sixtieth of death
[<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chad mi-shithin be-motha</i>], and she
rules over them.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Aramaic word
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">shithin</i> (sixty) is of great interest
because it can also be read as “pits,” referring specifically to the pits
beneath the Altar into which libations were poured.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Regarding this, see <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">T.B.
Sukkah</i> 49a:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“The Pits [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">shithin</i>] have existed since the six days
of Creation [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">me-shesheth yeme be-reshith</i>]
. . . the cavity of the Pits descended into the abyss.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The phrase <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chad mi-shithin be-motha</i> could conceivably be construed as “one of
the pits of death.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the same
section, it is said that “the school of R. Ishmael taught:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">be-reshith</i>:
read not <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">be-reshith</i> (‘in the
beginning’) but <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bara shith</i> (‘he
created a pit,’ or ‘he created six’).”<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK4;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK3;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>However
this may be, the number sixty is clearly of great importance in Astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Apart from the sexagesimal computation
of minutes and seconds of arc, the ecliptic circle was divided into exactly 60
unequal planetary terms (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">termini</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Furthermore (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bene notet lector!</i>), many writers on astrology discuss the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">putei</i> (“pits,” “deep degrees,” “pitted
degrees”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These degrees are said
to cancel the influence of any planet which occupies them; according to Albumasar,
“</span></span></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK4;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK3;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 11.0pt;">Many say that when benevolent stars are in them, they give good fortune
at first, but bad at last” (Thorndike, 26). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">putei</i> </span></span></span></span></span><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK4;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK3;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">are approximately sixty in
number (Lilly lists sixty-one; some writers do list exactly sixty), and are
irregularly distributed around the zodiac.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This suggests the possibility that each of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">putei </i>is to be associated with one of
the planetary terms.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is also
possible that each of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">putei</i> has a
dodecatemorian relationship to some other zodiacal point or points.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK4;"><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK3;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This
brings us to a discussion of the half-degrees, of which there are 60 in each sign,
and 720 [or 6!] in the entire zodiac.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This suggests further relations of self-similarity—a correspondence of
the two-sign (Aries-Taurus) binary unit to each zodiacal sign, with its two
halves corresponding to the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">horae</i>
(15º half-signs); a correspondence of the entire zodiac with its 60 terms to
the 60 half-degrees of each sign (the miniature zodiac again; this is what Manilius
was doing when he allotted each of the half-degrees in a 2½º dodecatemorion to
one of the five planets); and the correspondence of signs to 60-minute
degrees.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, Manilius
uses the same term dodecatemorion to refer both to the 2½º twelfths of signs
and to the half-degrees themselves.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This may be because each of the five planets was allotted twelve
half-degrees in each of the twelve signs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It is very interesting that Manilius’ account of the half-degrees is
followed by a curious digression about the building of a city (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Astronomicon</i> II.750ff.).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since the half-degrees were definitely
seen as an esoteric teaching (widely known among professional astrologers but
seldom discussed in their writings), it may well be that this digression
presents additional information about the half-degrees in an encoded form; it
might be well to examine the word-count, letter-count, and versification of
that passage.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Indian Astrology,
both the dodecatemoria and the half-degrees (known as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">shastyamsas</i>) were associated with ancestors and previous
incarnations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The analysis of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">shastyamsas</i> is exceedingly complex,
involving the identification of each of the 60 half-degrees in a sign with one
of 60 daemonic spirits.<o:p></o:p></span></span></span></span></span></div>
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK3;"></span><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK4;"></span>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK1;"></span><span style="mso-bookmark: OLE_LINK2;"></span>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">A
Year for a Day: The Progressions</span></u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
principle of Progression is to set two cycles equal to one another.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The most common way of doing this,
often referred to as Secondary Progression, involves the equation of each day
after birth to a year of life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
this way, one rotation of the earth (a day) is equated to one revolution around
the Sun (a year).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, a new moon
(for example) which occurred three days and four hours after birth is
predictive of life events occurring at the age of three years and two
months.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
origins of this technique are obscure.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It is mentioned once by Vettius Valens (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Anthologia </i>III.6), but the idea was not popularized until Placidus
de Titis published his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Primum Mobile</i>
(1657).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Other progression
techniques include Minor Progressions, which equate each lunar month to a year
(clearly implied in a passage by Porphyry, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Introductio</i>
2), and Tertiary Progressions, which equate each day after birth to one month
of life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Converse Progressions of
various sorts, equating (for example) the seventh day <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">before</i> birth to the seventh year of life, are also possible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A related technique that is sometimes
done is that of Converse Transits.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This means that each day before birth is made to correspond to a day
after birth, so that every day, month, and year of life is precisely mirrored
by similar intervals in the prenatal epoch; the present becomes the past, as
seen through a looking-glass.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
my own case, a highly traumatic experience on 23 December 1979 was found to
correspond to 7 December 1941—the precise day of the bombing of Pearl Harbor!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
theory, any two cycles could be equated in this way, but only the ones
mentioned are in use (Secondary, Minor, Tertiary, both Direct and
Converse).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A 30-year revolution of
Saturn, for example, could be equated to each day of life, reaching thousands
of years into the future (or past) and superimposing all of their details onto
a much shorter span of time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Another interesting possibility would be to equate sidereal months
(27.31 days) to synodic months (29.53 days); this would yield complex and
highly interesting results as the two cycles drifted further and further apart.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Closely
related to the Progressions is Ptolemy’s “key” for computing the fulfillment
date of Primary Directions, which equates one degree to one year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since Primary Direction is based on the
so-called Primary Motion (the diurnal revolution of the celestial sphere), this
means that one 24-hour day is being set equal to 360 years, one hour to 15
years, one minute to 3 months, and so on.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Clearly,
all of the techniques just described exemplify the principle of
self-similarity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Wheels
Within Wheels: The Revolutions<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Closely
related to the Progressions are the Revolutions, an extremely important part of
astrological practice which has been the subject of numerous books and
treatises.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The western
astrological tradition recognized revolutions of three kinds:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Solar Revolutions, Lunar Revolutions,
and Diurnal Revolutions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Solar
Revolution (also known as the Solar Return or Birthday Chart), is the most
important of these.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The concept is
simple:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a chart is erected for the
precise moment when the Sun returns to its radical position in degrees, minutes,
and seconds.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This occurs annually,
on or about the birthday.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each
revolution may be likened to the birth of a new year.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The resulting horoscope is treated as the radix of the year
to come.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It can be directed,
progressed, and subjected to any other operation or mode of analysis, just like
the radix.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Lunar Revolution
(Lunar Return) is a similar chart which is erected every month when the moon
returns to its radical position; this is usually a sidereal return (return to
radical zodiacal position), though an alternate procedure, using a synodic
return (return to radical lunar phase) is also possible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This chart is used for prognostications
relating to the coming month.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Finally, the Diurnal Revolution (or “Diurnal”) is a chart erected daily
at the precise time of birth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All
of these charts are subject to detailed analysis, either separately or in
combination with the others and/or the radix.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This whole doctrine of Revolutions is based on the principle
of self-similarity at ever-decreasing scales:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Radix<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>: <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Solar
Revolution<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Lunar Revolution<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Diurnal Revolution<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Lifetime<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Year<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Month<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Day<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Each
of these is regarded as a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gestalt</i>, a
snapshot, a hologram subsuming within itself all subsequent developments until
its cycle is complete.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Infinite
Complexity: The Profections<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Profections are analogous in many ways to the Revolutions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Profection, zodiacal signs are
equated to units of time.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">locus classicus</i> for this is found in
Manilius (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Astronomica</i>, III.537-559),
where he makes reference to profection by years, months, days, and hours.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In an annual profection (the most
common type), the planets and house-cusps of the radical horoscope are rotated
through one complete sign for each year of life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This interesting procedure leads to two observations:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>first, the horoscopes generated in this
way do not correspond to any actual celestial configuration (apart from their
starting point with the radix); second, the complete cycle occupies 12 solar
years and thus corresponds to the oriental zodiac, with its twelve animals (the
oriental zodiac, however, probably had its origin in the 12-year revolution of
Jupiter through the zodiac); third, all the profections are recursive
cycles—the profection of the 13<sup>th</sup> year of life is precisely similar
to that of the first year of life; fourth, it will be seen that one month of
the annual profection is one-twelfth of a sign, or 2½º, bringing us back once
again to the all-important dodecatemoria! This suggests the possibility of
still larger cycles—conceivably, we could rotate the zodiac through one
dodecatemorion per year (one sign in 12 years, the entire zodiac in 144 years),
and so on.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It
might be assumed that the mensural profection involves rotating the radix
through one sign per month, but that is not quite the case; rather, the radix
is rotated through <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">thirteen signs in
twelve months</i>, or 32½º per month.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In a month, therefore, the planets and angles will advance through one
complete sign plus one dodecatemorion, or 13 dodecatemoria in all.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This offers yet another striking
parallel to the dodecatemoria, this time to the thirteen-fold division of the
signs, and further demonstrates how the number 13 is built into the
system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both of these procedures
are based on the moon’s passage through 13 signs in the course of one
lunation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As
for the diurnal profections, some authorities prescribe advancing the planets
and house-cusps through one sign per day (12 day cycle); others say one sign
per 2½ days (30 day cycle). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>John Gadbury,
for reasons best known to himself, prescribed a diurnal profection rate of 2
days, 3 hours, and 54 minutes (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Genethlialogia</i>,
35.1); at that rate, profection through the entire zodiac would take
approximately 26 days.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
horary profection mentioned by Manilius would presumably involve an advance of
either one or two signs per hour.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>By extension, we could also perform profections by the minute, by the
second, by the third (i.e. 1/60 of a second), and so on <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ad infinitum</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Profection
thus not only exhibits self-similarity, but also allows for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">infinite precision</i> in the timing of
events!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">The
Disposed Years: Decennia and Firdaria <o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
western astrological tradition has made use of many different systems of
Disposed Years (Chronocrasis, or time rulership).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This involves the assignment of planetary chronocrators
(lords of time) to various periods and sub-periods of the lifetime.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The principal classical writers on
Astrology (Ptolemy, Manilius, Firmicus Maternus, Vettius Valens, Hephaestio)
present a wide array of these systems, some of them exceedingly complex and
implemented through Primary Direction.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, the two most widely used systems of Chronocrasis are quite a
bit simpler, and also demonstrate self-similarity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These are the Decennia and the Firdaria.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>To
compute the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">decennia</i>, you must begin
with the Minor Years of the planets (30 years for Saturn, 12 for Jupiter, 15
for Mars, 19 for the Sun, 8 for Venus, 20 for Mercury, and 25 for the
Moon).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These total 129 years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When divided by 12, the result is 129
months (one month for each Minor Year).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>For diurnal births, the first period of life is assigned to the Sun,
which thus has dominion over the first ten years and nine months (129 months)
of life (in the computation of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">decennia</i>,
the convention of a 30-day month is generally used, although variations are
possible employing sidereal months [27.31 days] or synodic months [29.53
days]).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For nocturnal births, the
first 129 months are assigned to the Moon.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In either case, subsequent periods of 129 months are
assigned to each of the remaining planets in zodiacal order (the order they
appear in the birth horoscope, counter-clockwise through the zodiac beginning
with the planet which rises next after the Sun or Moon).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The remaining six planets can thus
appear in any order, though some of the possible configurations are exceedingly
rare.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">We thus obtain seven <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">equal</i> periods of 129 months (totaling 75 years and 3 months), each
of which is assigned to one of the seven planets in an order derived from their
relative positions in the radix.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Each planetary period of 129 months is further divided into seven <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">unequal</i> planetary sub-periods.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These are allotted to the planets in
the same order as the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">decennia</i>,
beginning with the planetary period-ruler itself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each planet is then allotted the same number of months as
its Minor Years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Using my own
radix, this scheme is realized as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">15 December 1960 – 20 July 1971<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Sun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">20 July 1971 – 2 June 1982<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Jupiter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">2 June 1982 – 5 January 1993<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Saturn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">5 January 1993 – 11 August 2003<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">11 August 2003 – 16 March 2014<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Mars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">16 March 2014 – 19 October 2024<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Moon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">19 October 2024 – 25 May 2035<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Mercury<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">My
current <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">decennium</i> (11 August 2003 –
16 March 2014) contains the following sub-periods:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>11
August 2003 – 3 November 2004<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Mars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>3
November 2004 – 23 November 2006<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Moon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>23
November 2006 – 15 July 2008<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Mercury<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>15
July 2008 – 5 February 2010<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Sun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>5
February 2010 – 31 January 2011<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Jupiter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>31
January 2011 – 19 July 2013<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Saturn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>19
July 2013 – 16 March 2014<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">firdaria</i> are an alternate system of
Disposed Years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This ancient
scheme is of Persian origin, and has been transmitted to us through the
writings of the Arabian astrologers (Ibn Ezra, Albumasar, al-Biruni, et al.).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nine major periods (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">firdaria</i>) are allotted to the planets
and to the lunar nodes, as follows:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>11 years to Saturn, 12 to Jupiter, 7 to Mars, 10 to the Sun, 8 to Venus,
13 to Mercury, 9 to the Moon, 3 to the Ascending (North) Node (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Caput Draconis</i>), and 2 to the Descending
(South) Node (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cauda Draconis</i>)—for a
total of 75 solar years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
reasons for this distribution of years are obscure.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As
with the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">decennia</i>, these periods are
distributed beginning with that of the Sun for diurnal births, and beginning
with that of the Moon for nocturnal births.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, unlike the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">decennia</i>,
the order of the planetary periods is fixed:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>they follow the Chaldaean Order of the Planets
(Saturn—Jupiter—Mars—Sun—Venus—Mercury—Moon)—beginning with the Sun and ending
with Mars for those born by day, with the Nodes inserted at the end of the
series.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For those born by night,
the series begins with the Moon and ends with Saturn; most authorities place
the Nodes at the end of the nocturnal series also, although there is an alternate
scheme which inserts them between Mars and the Sun.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each of these major periods is divided into seven
sub-periods of equal duration (the periods assigned to the Nodes are not
subdivided).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These seven
sub-periods are then allotted to the seven planets, again using the Chaldaean
order, beginning with the planetary ruler of each major period.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unlike the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">decennnia</i>, where the computation is based on regularized 30-day
months, the computation of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">firdaria</i>
is based on solar years.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>My own <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">firdaria</i> are distributed as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>15
December 1960 – 15 December 1970<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Sun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>15
December 1970 – 15 December 1978<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>15
December 1978 – 15 December 1991<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Mercury<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>15
December 1991 – 15 December 2000<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Moon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>15
December 2000 – 15 December 2011<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Saturn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>15
December 2011 – 15 December 2023<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Jupiter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>15
December 2023 – 15 December 2030<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Mars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>15
December 2030 – 15 December 2033<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>North
Node<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>15
December 2033 – 15 December 2035<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>South
Node<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">The
current <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">firdarium</i> (15 December 2000 –
15 December 2011) contains the following sub-periods:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>15
December 2000 – 11 July 2002<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Saturn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>11
July 2002 – 5 February 2004<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Jupiter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>5
February 2004 – 1 September 2005<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Mars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>1
September 2005 – 29 March 2007<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Sun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>29
March 2007 – 23 October 2008<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>23
October 2008 – 20 May 2010<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Mercury<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>20
May 2010 – 15 December 2011<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Moon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Both
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">decennnia</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">firdaria</i> exhibit self-similarity in their division of planetary
periods into sub-periods.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However,
neither of these schemes contains a mechanism for further subdivision.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Twelve
and Thirteen: The Solar and Lunar Zodiacs<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
zodiac with its twelve signs (Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra,
Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces) has as its basis the
annual cycle of the Sun around the ecliptic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The four seasons are defined by the Sun’s entry into Aries
(the spring equinox), Cancer (the summer solstice and longest day of the year),
Libra (the autumnal equinox), and Capricorn (the winter solstice and shortest
day of the year).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These four
cardinal ingresses are the angles of the zodiac, corresponding to the four
angles of the horoscope (Ascendant, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Imum
Coeli</i>, Descendant, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Medium Coeli</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to Ptolemy (Tetrabiblos
I.[15]), each of the four quadrants is divided into three signs because each of
the seasons has three parts:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a
period of transition from the previous season, a season when its own conditions
are in full force, and a period of transition to the next season.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Alongside
this Solar Zodiac, there has always existed a lesser-known Lunar Zodiac.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the western tradition, the Lunar
Zodiac is divided into 28 Lunar Mansions, each corresponding roughly to the
distance the Moon travels along the ecliptic in the course of one day.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Like the sun-signs, these Lunar
Mansions (Arab. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">manazil al-qamar</i>)
have an ancient series of names and symbols associated with them, and each one
has a planetary ruler as well (there are at least two alternate schemes of
planetary rulership).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The mansions
are approximately 12º51’26” in extent, so that seven mansions correspond to
three sun-signs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This system
appears to be of Babylonian, Persian, or Arabian origin, but has been known in
the west since Greco-Roman<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>times,
as witnessed by Maximus of Tyre, a writer of the 2<sup>nd</sup> century A.C.
(Tester, 82).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, the Solar and
Lunar zodiacs have coexisted since ancient times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While the Solar Zodiac has formed the basis of the western
calendar, the Lunar Zodiac has lingered on in the shadows, and has a long
association with witchcraft and divination.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Lunar Mansions do not reflect the Moon’s motion precisely because they have
been made to synchronize with the Solar Year, at the rate of seven mansions to
three sun-signs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, each Lunar Mansion
is three-sevenths of a sign, and each sign corresponds to 2 1/3 mansions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This equation gives rise to the Septenaries
(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">septenaria</i>), an extremely important
but little-known subdivision of the Zodiac.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each sign of the zodiac is divided into seven septenaries of
approximately 4º17’09”, so that each Lunar Mansion comprises three of these
septenaries.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The septenaries are
thus the least common denominator unifying the solar and lunar zodiacs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are 84 septenaries in all, and
each one is associated with one of the twelve signs according to the following
scheme:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the seven septenaries in
every odd-numbered (masculine, diurnal) sign (i.e. Aries, Gemini, Leo, Libra,
Sagittarius, Aquarius) are assigned to seven signs in zodiacal order, beginning
with the sign itself and ending with the sign opposite; the seven septenaries
in every even-numbered (feminine, nocturnal) sign (i.e. Taurus, Cancer, Virgo,
Scorpio, Capricornus, Pisces) are assigned to seven signs in zodiacal order,
but beginning with the sign <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">opposite</i>
and ending with the sign itself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In other words, the entire zodiac is counted off seven times, beginning
with Aries (the first septenary of Aries) and ending with Pisces (the last
septenary of Pisces).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It will be
seen that this gives rise to an alternate version of the miniature zodiac!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
mediaeval astrological literature makes reference to the septenaries form time
to time, bu they are mentioned only in passing, and I have yet to find an
explicit discussion of their use and meaning.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The possibility of Primary Direction to the septenaries (on
the analogy of Primary Direction to the Planetary Terms) strikes me as being
pregnant with possibilities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
septenaries could even be used as an alternate (seven-fold) set of planetary
terms.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Another valid procedure
would be to allot the 28 Lunar Mansions to the septenaries, counting off the
entire series four times over.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This would result in an alternate (lunar) scheme of planetary
rulerships.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Indian astrological
practice, the septenaries are associated with the begetting of children.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Decanates (or Decans) are perhaps the single most important (and sinister)
concept in all of Astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There
are 36 Decanates, three for each of the twelve signs (perhaps on the analogy of
the division of each of the four quadrants into three signs). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each Decanate is 10º (1/3 of a sign) in
extent.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This system is Egyptian in
origin, and may be of greater antiquity than the twelve signs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Like the signs of the zodiac, each
decanate has a name and a symbol, and each of them is associated with a
particular daemonic spirit; each of these spirits can be invoked during the
period of roughly 40 minutes each day when its decan is rising in the
east.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This concept is pervasive
throughout western Astrology, and has lurked just beneath the surface from
Classical and Mediaeval times down to the present.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This alternate zodiac is copiously described and depicted
throughout the astrological literature, and was thoroughly investigated in a
classic study by W. Gundel and S. Schott, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Dekane
und Dekansternbilder</i></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"> </span></i><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">(1936).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although very few modern practitioners
of Astrology have even heard of this, it is impossible to read the traditional
astrological literature without coming across repeated references to it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There is an extremely important
statement in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Corpus Hermeticum</i>
[ref.] to the effect that the true meaning of each of the twelve signs is to be
found through the three decanates of which it is comprised.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This will be further discussed and
illustrated later on.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>So
what is the point of this digression about the Egyptian decanates?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is because they also make it
possible to synchronize the solar and lunar zodiacs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From earliest times, it was taught that just as each sign is
divided into three decanates, so also each one of the decanates is subdivided
into three <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">munifices</i> (Gk. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">leitourgoi</i>) or “ministers,” which are
said to bring about chance events at the behest of the decans.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">munifices</i> were known to the mediaeval astrologers as the Novenaries
(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">novenaria</i>, ninths of signs), of
which there are 108, each one 3º20’ in extent.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bonatus (ref.) teaches that the Novenary in which the Moon
is placed is of special importance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Each of the 108 novenaries is particularly associated with one of the
twelve signs, using a scheme based on the Triplicities (the four
elements):<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the nine novenaries in
each of the fire signs (Aries, Leo, Sagittarius) are assigned to the nine signs
in zodiacal order beginning with Aries (the first fire sign); the nine novenaries
in each of the earth signs (Taurus, Virgo, Capricorn) are assigned to the nine
signs in zodiacal order beginning with Capricorn (the third earth sign); the nine
novenaries in each of the air signs (Gemini, Libra, Aquarius) are assigned to
the nine signs in zodiacal order beginning with Libra (the second air sign);
finally, the nine novenaries in each of the water signs (Cancer, Scorpio,
Pisces) are assigned to the nine signs in zodiacal order beginning with Cancer
(the first water sign).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This
scheme counts off the entire zodiac nine times over, so that the first, fifth
(middle), and ninth (last) novenary of each sign will be of its own Triplicity.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Now
it so happens that Indian Astrology makes use of a Lunar Zodiac different from
the Lunar Mansions of the western tradition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead of 28 Lunar Mansions of (approximately) 12º51’26”
each, the Indians divided the 360 degrees of the ecliptic circle into 27 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nakshatras</i> (moon-signs), each of exactly
13º20’.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Like the Lunar Mansions,
each of these <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nakshatras</i> has a name
and a planetary ruler (in this scheme, the lunar nodes are also used as
planetary rulers). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nakshatra</i> is subdivided into four <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">padas</i> (“petals”), of 3º20’, and these
are none other than the 108 novenaries of western practice!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">Thus, the division of each sign into three decanates
leads in turn to the subdivision of each of the decanates into three
novenaries; when reassembled into sets of four, these novenaries yield the 27
lunar <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nakshatras</i> of Indian
Astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">As we have seen, the significance of both the septenaries
and the novenaries is that they serve to connect the solar zodiac to a lunar
zodiac (comprising either 28 mansions or 27 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nakshatras</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is very interesting to note that in
Indian Astrology, there are actually not 27, but <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">28</i> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nakshatras</i>; an
additional <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nakshatra</i> (called Abhijit)
is sometimes inserted between the 21<sup>st</sup> and 22<sup>nd</sup> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nakshatras</i>, but usually has no degrees
or minutes assigned to it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This
extra <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nakshatra</i> is sometimes used in
horary and electional procedures; in such cases it is given a span of just
4º13’40”, which is deducted from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nakshatras</i>
on either side of it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is
associated with Vega and the constellation of Lyra.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It appears from this that the 28 Lunar Mansions are the
primary system, and that the Indian reduction of these to 27 was a
simplification to allow for lunar <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nakshatras
</i>of precisely 13º20’ in extent; these were preferable to the Lunar Mansions,
whose extent (12º51’26”) could only be approximated.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">Finally, it must be noted that both the decanates
and the Lunar Mansions are sometimes designated by the alternative term facies
(“face” or “phase”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is
especially interesting in the case of the Lunar Mansions, since it points to
their possible origin in a scheme of 28 lunar phases (in modern times, James
Joyce worked out a comparable system of his own [ref.]).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Not only were the decans and lunar
mansions confounded under the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">facies</i>
designation, but there are also Greco-Roman references to the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">munifices</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">leitourgoi</i>) as being either 84 or 108 in number (Tester,
116-17).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Clearly, references to both
decans and lunar mansions as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">facies</i>
led to a similar confusion in the terms used to designate their tripartite
subdivisions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Similarly, both the
septenaries (thirds of lunar mansions) and the novenaries (thirds of decans)
were known by the same name (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">munifices</i>,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">liturgi</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This may not reflect a confusion of terms, however, but
rather an understanding of their similar function of unifying the solar and
lunar zodiacs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It appears that the
septenaries and novenaries were understood respectively as lunar and solar <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">leitourgoi</i>.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">This brings us finally to a discussion of the
astrological significance of the numbers Twelve and Thirteen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As previously stated, twelve is a solar
number since the twelve months and the twelve signs of the zodiac are generated
directly from the annual motion of the Sun.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thirteen, however, is a lunar number and is no less
important, although the astrological concepts associated with it are not as generally
known.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">The counting of the syzygies (New and Full Moons) in
a solar year generates the numbers twelve and thirteen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For any solar year, there are exactly
three possibilities:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>there may be
12 New Moons and 12 Full Moons, 12 New Moons and 13 Full Moons, or 13 New Moons
and 12 Full Moons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A year
containing 13 New Moons is called an Embolistic Year; a year containing 12 New
Moons is called a Common Year, regardless of the number of Full Moons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are seven Embolistic Years and
twelve Common Years in a 19-year Metonic Cycle, at the end of which the Sun and
Moon will return to nearly the same positions they occupied at the beginning of
the cycle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, I was born
on December 15, 1960, with the Sun at 23Sag45 and the Moon at 16Sco14.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On the occasion of my 19<sup>th</sup>
Solar Revolution (December 16, 1979 at 1:55 AM), the Sun was again at 23Sag45,
and the Moon at 16Sco39—just 25 arc-minutes from its radical position.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">The number Thirteen expresses itself in several
other important ways, all of them related to the Moon.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the course of one sidereal month
(the time required for the Moon to make one entire revolution through the
zodiac, about 27.31 days), the Moon travels an average distance along the
ecliptic of approximately 13º10’55” per day.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So 13º is roughly equivalent to the Moon’s diurnal motion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the course of one synodic month (the
period determined by the Moon’s phases as it goes from one New Moon to the
next, about 29.53 days), the Moon travels a total distance of approximately
389º (388º59’57”)—or very nearly 13 signs of the zodiac (390º).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, if the New Moon occurs in the
first degree of Aries, the Moon will pass through all 12 signs, plus 29º of a
thirteenth sign, so that the next New Moon will occur in the thirtieth degree
of Aries.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As stated previously,
this is clearly the basis of the division of signs into 13, since the 13
subdivisions of Aries (for example) are assigned to Aries, Taurus, Gemini,
Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">and Aries again</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">The idea of a year comprised of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">thirteen lunar months</i>, in association with the convention of 28
lunar phases or mansions, gave rise to the traditional definition of a solar
year as “a year and a day,” which comes up from time to time in the mediaeval
romances.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is because 13
months of 28 days amounted to 364 days, and one additional day makes this a
very good approximation of a solar year!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">The system of 28 lunar mansions of approximately
12º51’26” also generates the number Thirteen in a very ingenious manner:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>since any degree is defined as an arc
of 60 minutes, the 10<sup>th</sup> degree of Aries (for example) extends from
9º00’01” through 10º00’00”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Therefore, the boundary between the first and second lunar mansions at
12Ari51’26” falls in the 13<sup>th</sup> degree of Aries.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If we examine the boundaries of the
lunar mansions in the first quadrant of the zodiac, we get the following
result:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">12Ari51’26”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>13<sup>th</sup>
degree of Aries<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[13º
of the quadrant]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">25Ari42’52”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>26<sup>th</sup>
degree of Aries<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[26º
of the quadrant]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>8Tau34’18”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>9<sup>th</sup>
degree of Taurus<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[39º
of the quadrant]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">21Tau25’44”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>22<sup>nd</sup>
degree of Taurus<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[52º
of the quadrant]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>4Gem17’10”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>5<sup>th</sup>
degree of Gemini<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[65º
of the quadrant]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">17Gem08’36”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>18<sup>th</sup>
degree of Gemini<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[78º
of the quadrant]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">We
will obtain a similar result for the other three quadrants.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These degrees (the 13<sup>th</sup> and
26<sup>th</sup> of the cardinal signs [Aries, Cancer, Libra, Capricornus], the
9<sup>th</sup> and 22<sup>nd</sup> of the fixed signs [Taurus, Leo, Scorpio,
Aquarius], and the 5<sup>th</sup> and 18<sup>th</sup> degrees of the mutable
signs [Gemini, Virgo, Sagittarius, Pisces]) are known as the Critical Degrees.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It will be seen that these Critical
Degrees are all multiples of Thirteen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Along with the cardinal points (first degrees of Aries, Cancer, Libra,
and Capricornus), there are 28 of these, marking the beginning of each of the
lunar mansions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Critical
Degrees have a wide array of applications in traditional astrological practice.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Lilium tredecimplex</span></u></i><u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Sacred Number<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
opening passage of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zohar</i> speaks
of a Lily (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">shoshanah</i>) with thirteen
petals (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">‘alin</i>), corresponding to the
Thirteen Attributes of Mercy (cf. Ex. 34:5-7, Micah 7:18-20).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The passage also notes that in Genesis
1, the first and second references to Elohim are separated by 13 words, and
associates these with the thirteen petals and the Thirteen Attributes of
Mercy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second and third
references to Elohim are separated by five Hebrew words, and these, according
to the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zohar</i>, correspond to the five
sepals or leaves (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">‘alin taqqiphin</i>)
which surround the thirteen petals of the Lily.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is very interesting that if this procedure is continued,
it will be seen that the third and fourth, fourth and fifth, and fifth and
sixth references to Elohim are all separated by five words, while the sixth and
seventh references to Elohim are separated by twelve words.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These numbers bring to mind the second
Pythagorean triple, a right triangle whose sides measure 5, 12, and 13
units.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The number Thirteen is of
the greatest significance in the Zohar, and the text recurs to it again and
again.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It
is also highly significant that the gematriacal value of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">echod</i> (one) is 13 (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">aleph</i> =
1, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ches</i> = 8, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dales</i> = 4).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When the
opening words of the Shema (De. 6:4-9), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">shema‘
yisro’el adonoi elohenu adonoi echod</i> (“hear O Israel, the LORD our God, the
LORD is One”) are read in light of this fact, it becomes clear that Thirteen is
a divine number.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Twelve
and Thirteen are juxtaposed in another remarkable passage from Genesis: “</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">Twelve years they served Chedorlaomer,
and in the thirteenth year they rebelled” (Ge. 14:4).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Genesis 37:9, Joseph relates his dream: “ Behold, I have
dreamed a dream more; and, behold, the sun and the moon and the eleven stars
made obeisance to me.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Joshua
6, we learn that the walls of Jericho fell after the Israelites had marched
around the city thirteen times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>These are just a few of the numerous occurrences of the number Thirteen
in the Old Testament, where it lies hidden in much the same way as in the
Zodiac.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In both cases, we see a
system which is ostensibly built around the number Twelve, but where closer
inspection reveals the number Thirteen to be of equal or even greater
significance.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>My
hypothesis is that Thirteen is the fundamental number of the fractal in which
our universe has its existence.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The structure of this fractal is clearly reflected in the ancient
division of each sign of the Zodiac into thirteen dodecatemoria.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thirteen is also a Fibonacci number,
and is frequently seen in nature; for example, the seed-pod of a poppy is
surmounted by thirteen ridges; certain species of flowers (including several
varieties of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">rosaceae</i>) have 13
petals; the design of a pinecone incorporates 8 clockwise spirals and 13
counterclockwise spirals; the leaves of the almond and the pussy willow are
arranged in such a way that there are 5 turns for every 13 leaves.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Another very interesting fact which
points to this conclusion is the famous “kissing number problem”:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>how many nested spheres of radius 1 can
touch a central (unit) sphere?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Newton
believed (but could not prove) that the number was 12, while David Gregory
argued for 13.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The problem was
eventually solved in 1953, when it was proved that Newton was right:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>thirteen spheres can be packed together
in such an arrangement (Casselman, 2004).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">Origen’s theology, which incorporated Stoic and
astrological ideas, included a belief in reincarnation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He believed that history unfolds in
cycles corresponding to the Platonic Year (the precessional cycle 25,920
years); thus, each cycle begins with Creation and ends with Conflagration (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ekpyrosis</i>) and Restoration (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">apokatastasis</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All souls are pre-existent, and all
souls are eventually redeemed; thus, the function of hell is not punitive, but
purgative.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This idea that all
things will eventually be reconciled to God has a strong basis in scripture
(cf. II Cor. 5:18-19, Mt. 17:11, Mk. 9:12).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Upon the completion of each Platonic Year (signalized by the
Great Return of all the heavenly bodies to their original configuration), the
entire self-similar cycle is repeated.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>One fascinating fragment from Origen’s lost writings states that every
soul has formerly existed as an angel, as a devil, and as a human being.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This implies that </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">every incarnation may go
either up or down.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both quantum branchings
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">actually exist</i>, and God knows them
both equally well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Both lead
ultimately to the same result, since the downward path through hell leads
eventually to heaven.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the words
of one of the epigrams in the Anthologia Graeca (which I memorized for some
reason at the age of 19, though I had no idea of its significance), he hodos
ano kato kai oute (“the road up and the road down are the same”). Eventually
each soul passes through all 360 degrees of the circle.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also implied is an endless repetition
of the cycle of Creation, Rebellion, Redemption, Apocalypse, and Restoration.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Belief in reincarnation was prevalent in
first-century Judaism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For
example, Jesus’ disciples asked Him, “</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">Master, who did sin, this man, or his parents, that
he was born blind?” (Jn. 9:2).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This question implies the possibility of someone being punished for a
sin committed before birth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
response to Jesus’ question, “Whom do men say that I the Son of man am?” (Mt.
16:13), the disciples answered, “Some say that thou art John the Baptist: some,
Elias; and others, Jeremias, or one of the prophets” (vs. 14).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The reference to John the Baptist seems
very strange, since John and Jesus were contemporaries, and John had only
recently died; the disciples’ statement would imply that some kind of overlapping
or sharing of souls was considered possible (more on this below).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jesus said nothing to discourage such
beliefs; indeed, He clearly taught reincarnation Himself.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Speaking again of John, He said, “if ye
will receive it, this is Elias [Elijah], which was for to come” (Mt. 11:14, cf.
Mark 9:11-13).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Christian attempts
to explain this passage away inevitably descend into drivel. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">Belief in reincarnation and the manifold structure
of the soul is also hinted in the Old Testament:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“And it came to pass, when they were gone over, that Elijah
said unto Elisha, Ask what I shall do for thee, before I be taken away from
thee. And Elisha said, I pray thee, let a double portion of thy spirit be upon
me” (II Ki. 2:9).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This raises the
possibility that </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">souls
are multiple in nature, so that the same soul travels multiple paths.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Based on the structure of the dodecatemoria,
it is possible to hypothesize that 12 or 13 different paths feed into each
birth, and that death likewise may lead to 12 or 13 alternate paths.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There may also be parallel paths going
neither up nor down; this way, a person’s present life could be one of 12 or 13
running in parallel.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">This discussion finds some extremely interesting
parallels in quantum mechanics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>According to the “many-worlds interpretation” proposed by Hugh Everett
III in 1957, “in every circumstance in which there is a choice of experimental
outcome, in fact each possibility is realized.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The world at that instant splits up into many worlds, in
each of which one of the possible results of the measurement is the one that
actually occurs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus for
Schrodinger’s cat there is one world in which it lives and another world in
which it dies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These worlds are,
so to speak, alongside each other but incapable of communicating with each
other in any way.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This latter
point is supposed to explain our feeling that we experience a continuity of
existence for ourselves.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The cat who
lives is unaware of the cat who dies.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>All the time I am being repeatedly cloned as copies of myself multiply
to pursue their separate lives in the many worlds into which my world is
continually splitting.” (Polkinghorne, 67).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But is reality actually this chaotic?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Do entities (and universes) really
multiply themselves without limit?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Quantum mechanics has developed under the constraint of the
correspondence principle, which requires that classical mechanics must be
recoverable for large systems.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Feynman demonstrated that over time, there is a tendency for neighboring
paths of subatomic particles to cancel each other out:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“For really large systems this will
have the consequence that the only paths which contribute significantly to the
final result will be those in a region where the action changes as slowly as
possible, since here the cancellations are minimized.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This region is threaded along what is called the path of
stationary action, since the latter is by definition the path from which small
changes of trajectory produce negligible changes of action. . . . classical
mechanics will arise as the limiting behaviour of large systems since the only
paths that will count in their sum over histories will be extremely close to
the classical trajectory of least action.” (Polkinghorne, 43).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">It may be that this limiting principle, perhaps in
conjunction with some version of observer-dependent reality, has the effect of
reducing the actual possibilities to a much smaller number: Thirteen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Like the nine lives of the proverbial
cat, our souls are assembled in a manifold of thirteen.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Despite what appears to be a
near-infinite number of potential illnesses, accidents, and misadventures, the
paths of exit from any given human life are thirteen in number.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This may be likened to a large maze
constructed of bricks of thirteen colors:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>the maze is divided into thirteen sections, each section built from a
different color of bricks, and each of these sections leading to only one exit
from the maze; however, there is a very limited number of paths leading from
any given section into any of the others—so that a random path through any of the
thirteen sub-mazes is unlikely to lead into one of the other twelve sub-mazes,
and will probably find its exit through paths of that same color.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">All thirteen sections of the maze are real, and all
thirteen exits will inevitably be found.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In the course of lifetime, we will experience some of these as “close
calls,” not realizing that the two alternatives (death and continued life) were
both equally real.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In astrological
terms, these alternatives may correspond to the first and last of the 13-fold dodecatemoria
of any given sign; it is not for nothing that these regions coincide with what
are called the “early degrees” and “late degrees” of a sign.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Revolutions and Profections should be
carefully inspected for points whose dodecatemoria fall in such places, as
these may be the places where one path breaks off into two.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">As stated earlier, the 13-fold dodecatemoria
generate a system in which there is one way down, and thirteen ways up.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To be precise, there are <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">twelve or thirteen</i> ways up, since two of
the thirteen dodecatemoria are the same.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Thus, there may be thirteen concurrent lives (or component lives), which
may be combined and recombined in various ways.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<u><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></u>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">21,600
Minutes:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Firmicus Maternus and the
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Myriogenesis</i><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mathesis</i>, Firmicus Maternus refers
repeatedly to a work entitled <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Myriogenesis</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This text is no longer extant.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Firmicus’ fullest description of it
appears in book 5:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">If you read the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Myriogenesis</i>
of Aesculapius which he claimed Mercury had revealed to him, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">you will find that from individual minutes, without
any help of the planets, the order of the <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">whole chart can be explained.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the ascendant, located in
individual minutes, explains the <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">whole order of life most clearly and obviously:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>its appearance and experiences, kinds
of <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">danger, and the first day of life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since the individual sign consists of
30 degrees and 1800 minutes, the location of the ascendant in one minute
describes the entire fate of men (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mathesis</i>
V.i.36, trans. Jean Rhys Bram)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Firmicus
goes on to say (V.i.38), “do not look for the theory of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Myriogenesis</i> in this book.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>When our meager talent with the help of favorable powers will have
finished this book, then I will write for you in twelve other books the secrets
of that teaching.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But for now we
must continue, or we will never arrive at the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Myriogenesis</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>First we
must learn the basic principles.”<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
other words, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Myriogenesis</i> was a
system of analyzing the arc-minutes of the ecliptic circle, with such precision
that the resulting delineation was comparable in detail to the analysis of the
chart itself, including all seven planets in their signs, houses, and mutual
aspects.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is truly an
astonishing idea.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>What
was the form and procedure of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Myriogenesis</i>?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since there are 360 degrees in the
zodiac, each divided into 60 minutes, there are 21,600 minutes in the ecliptic
circle; the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Myriogenesis </i>supposedly
generated a unique and specific delineation for each one of these minutes!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is very interesting to note that in
Indian philosophy, the number of breaths (inhalation plus exhalation) taken in
a 24-hour day is said to be 21,600; moreover, the most widely recognized
astrological definition of the beginning of life is the moment when the infant
takes his first breath.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Myriogenesis
= one minute <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Behind
the North Wind:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Draconis Puteus Hyperborealis</i><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Cat’s
Eye Nebula, one of the most complex nebulae known, with numerous concentric
rings generated just a few centuries apart—no known physical mechanism to
explain this, as the usual time-scale for such extrusions is much greater; we
are looking back at our point of reference, into the hollow interior of the
sphere; entry into which requires surrender to that vision) Cf. the Myriogenesis,
but this = one point!; there is a certain analogy/can be drawn to Firmicus
Maternus and his account of the Myriogenesis.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Ursa Major = Pleiades = 7
planets (?)<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Dragon guards the North
Ecliptic Pole (the point the earth’s axis points to without ever pointing to
it); its nebula is a point of infinite complexity; Symmes Hole; Tower of Babel;
Direction Under the Pole (a technology of undreamed-of implications), the
Opening of the Pole (direction under the pole of the ecliptic), Angel with
Sword pointing in all directions = North magnetic pole; hollow earth analogous
to a mirror—looking into the next room, but not really.<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">“The
Queen of the South will rise up with this generation at the judgment and will
condemn it, because she came from the ends of the earth to hear the wisdom of
Solomon; and behold, something greater than Solomon is here.” (Matthew 12:42;
cf. Luke 11:31)</span><u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The
Theory of Astrological Correspondences<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As
Hume (2007) observes, the Principle of Correspondences is a concept which
pervades the Western esoteric tradition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This, too, is a manifestation of fractal Self-Similarity, as seemingly
unconnected things of all sorts are categorized and juxtaposed in terms of
their Binary, Elemental (Fire, Earth, Air, Water), and Planetary
associations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This principle
expresses itself in Astrology in several important ways—first, in the doctrine
of Planetary Sect, by which the seven planets are divided into two families or
sects:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the Diurnal Sect (the Sun,
Jupiter, Saturn; Mercury in its matutine phases), and the Nocturnal Sect (the
Moon, Mars, Venus; Mercury in its vespertine phases); second, in the
classification of the planets by gender (the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn being
masculine, the Moon and Venus feminine, and Mercury of indeterminate gender);
third, the planets are categorized in terms of Temperament. The most common
understanding of this is that the Sun and Mars are Hot and Dry, the Moon and
Venus Cold and Wet, Jupiter Hot and Wet, and Saturn and Mercury Cold and Dry;
this concept is closely tied to that of the four Triplicities or Elements
(Fire, Earth, Air, Water).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The planets are also associated with the 12 signs of
the Zodiac in various ways.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Each
sign has a planetary ruler, with Aries and Scorpio ruled by Mars, Taurus and
Libra by Venus, Gemini and Virgo by Mercury, Cancer by the Moon, Leo by the
Sun, Sagittarius and Pisces by Jupiter, and Capricorn and Aquarius by
Saturn.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, the seven
planets have their Exaltations in particular signs (the Sun in Aries, the Moon
in Taurus, Mercury in Virgo, Venus in Pisces, Mars in Capricorn, Jupiter in
Cancer, Saturn in Libra), and are said to “rejoice” in particular mundane
houses (Mercury in the 1<sup>st</sup>, the Moon in the 3<sup>rd</sup>, Venus in
the 5<sup>th</sup>, Mars in the 6<sup>th</sup>, the Sun in the 9<sup>th</sup>,
Jupiter in the 11<sup>th</sup>, and Saturn in the 12<sup>th</sup>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Finally, as we have seen, the
innumerable subdivisions of the signs all have their planetary rulerships and
zodiacal associations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Without going into great detail, let it be said that
at the most basic level, there are three sets of astrological
correspondences:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the seven-fold
Planetary Correspondences, the twelve-fold Zodiacal Correspondences, and the
twelve-fold Domal (House) Correspondences.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The planets are essentially seven unique characterizations,
although broader categorization of the planets according to Sect, Gender, and
Temperament is also involved.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The 12 signs of the Zodiac may also be seen as 12
unique archetypes, but in this case, categorization and aspectual relationships
are clearly organizing principles.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Thus, the 12 signs have a binary categorization as Diurnal (Aries,
Gemini, Leo, Libra, Sagittarius, Aquarius) and Nocturnal (Taurus, Cancer,
Virgo, Scorpio, Capricorn, Pisces); a ternary categorization as Cardinal
(Aries, Cancer, Libra, Capricorn), Fixed (Taurus, Leo, Scorpio, Aquarius), and
Mutable (Gemini, Virgo, Sagittarius, Pisces); and a quaternary categorization
as Fire signs (Aries, Leo, Sagittarius), Earth signs (Taurus, Virgo,
Capricorn), Air signs (Gemini, Libra, Aquarius), and Water signs (Cancer,
Scorpio, Pisces).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The signs can be
grouped in many other ways as well—as “commanding” and “obeying,” “fecund” and
“sterile”, “seeing” and “hearing,” “human,” “quadrupedal,” “reptilian,” and so
on.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Signs which are two signs apart (sextile aspect) or
four signs apart (trine aspect) are considered Harmonious; signs which are
three signs apart (square aspect) or six signs apart (opposition) are
Disharmonious; neighboring signs and those which are five signs apart are Inconjunct
(no relationship).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The 12 Mundane Houses are similarly classified as
Angular (1<sup>st</sup>, 4<sup>th</sup>, 7<sup>th</sup>, 10<sup>th</sup>), Succedent
(2<sup>nd</sup>, 5<sup>th</sup>, 8<sup>th</sup>, 11<sup>th</sup>), and Cadent
(3<sup>rd</sup>, 6<sup>th</sup>, 9<sup>th</sup>, 12<sup>th</sup>).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Once these principles are clearly understood, it becomes possible to
derive complex patterns of astrological associations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Planets, Signs, and Houses have innumerable associations
with colors, occupations, places, animals, plants, and objects.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Virtually any object can be categorized
in this way.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The planet Saturn,
for example, “</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"> signifieth
Husbandmen, Clowns, Beggars, Day-labourers, Old-men, Fathers, Grand-fathers,
Monks, Jesuits, Sectarists. . . Curriers, Night-farmers, Miners under ground,
Tinners, Potters, Broom-men, Plummers, Brick-makers, Malsters,
Chimney-sweepers, Sextons of Churches, Bearers of dead corps, Scavengers,
Hostlers, Colliers, Carters, Gardiners, Ditchers, Chandlers, Diers of Black
cloth, an Herdsman, Shepheard or Cow-keeper. . . . He governeth Beirsfoot,
Starwort, Woolf-bane, Hemlock, Ferne, Hellebor the white and black, Henbane,
Ceterach or Finger-ferne, Clotbur or Burdock, Parsnip, Dragon, Pulse, Vervine,
Mandrake, Poppy, Mosse, Nightshade, Bythwind, Angelida, Sage, Box, Tutfan, Orage
or golden Hearb, Spinach, Shepheards Purse, Cummin, Horitaile, Fumitory. . . .
Tamarisk, Savine, Sene, Capers, Rue or Hearbgrice, Polipody, Willow or Sallow
Tree, Yew-tree, Cypress tree, Hemp <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">[N.B.!],
</i>Pine-tree. . . . The Asse, Cat Hare, Mouse, Mole, Elephant, Beare,Dog,
Wolf, Bastlisk, Crocodile, Scoprion, Toad, Serpent, Adder, Hog, all manner of
creeping Creatures breeding of putrification, either in the Earth, Water or
Ruines of Houses. . . . The Eele, Tortoise, Shel-fishes. The Bat or
Blude-black, Crow, Lapwing, Owle, Gnat, Crane, Peacock, Grashopper, Thrush,
Blackbird, Ostritch, Cuckoo. . . . He delights in Deserts, Woods, obscure
Vallies, Caves, Dens, Holes, Mountaines, or where men have been buried,
Church-yards, &c. Ruinous Buildings, Cole-mines, Sinks, Dirty or Stinking
Muddy Places, Wells and Houses of Offices, &c. . . . He ruleth over Lead,
the Lead-stone, the Drosse of all Mettals, as also , the Dust and Rubbidge of
every thing. . . . Saphire, Lapis Lazuli, all black, ugly Country Stones not polishable,
and of a sad ashy or black colour. . . . He causeth Cloudy, Dark, obscure Ayre,
cold and hurtfull, thick, black and cadense Clouds. . . . As to Age, he relates
to decreped old men; Fathers, Grandfathers, the like in Plants, Trees, and all
living Creatures. . . . Late Authours say he ruleth over Bavaria, Saxony,
Stiria, Romandisle, Ravenna, Constantia, Ingoldstad” (William Lilly, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Christian Astrology</i>, 1647:61).</span><span style="font-family: Times-Roman; font-size: 18.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>According
to Lilly, the sign of Pisces is “a</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">n idle, effeminate, sickly Sign, or representing a
party of no action.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is
associated with “All diseases in the Feet, as the Gout, and all Lamenesse and
Aches incident to those members, and so generally salt Flegms, Scabs, Itch,
Borches, Breakings out, Boyles and Ulcers proceeding from Blood putrificated,
Colds and moyst diseases. . . . It represents Grounds full of water, or where
many Springs and much Fowl, also fish-ponds or Rivers full of Fish, places
where Hermitages have been, Moats about Houses, Water Mils; in houses neer the
water, as to some Well or Pump, or where water stands.” Pisces gives “A short
stature, ill composed, not, not very decent, a good large Face, palish
Complexion, the Body fleshy or swelling, not very straight, but incurvating
somewhat with the Head,” and is associated with “Calabria in Sicilia, Portugall,
Normandy, the North of Egypt, Alexandria, Rhemes, Wormes, Compostella” (Lilly, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Christian Astrology</i>, 1647:99).</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Notice that for each of the signs, Lilly gives both interior and
exterior places—another fascinating set of Correspondences!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, the sign of Aquarius is
associated with “</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Hilly
and uneven places, places new digged, or where quarries of Stone are, or any
Minerals have been digged up; in Houses, the roofs, eaves or upper parts;
Vineyards, or neer some I little Spring or Conduit-head” (Lilly, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Christian Astrology</i>, 1647:99).</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Each of the 12 Houses is associated with various “matters.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lilly writes that the 8th house
pertains to “</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 32.0pt;">t</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">he Estate of Men deceased,
Death, its quality and nature; the wills, Legacies and Testaments of Men
deceased; Dowry of the Wife, Portion of the Maid, whether much or little, easie
to be obtained or with difficulty. In Duels it represents the Adversaries
Second; in Lawsuits the Defendants friends. What kinde of Death a Man shall
dye., it signifies fear and anguish of Minde. Who shall enjoy or be heir to the
Deceased. It rules the Privy-Parts. Of colours, the green and Black. Of Signes
it hath Scorpio for Cosignificator, and Saturn, the Hemoroids, the Stone,
Strangury, Poysons, and Bladder are ruled by this house; and is a succedant
House, and Feminine” (Lilly, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Christian
Astrology</i>, 1647:54).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Sometimes house associations involve a procedure known as “Chart
Turning” or “Derived Houses.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For
example, the house of one’s paternal uncle is found by first taking the 4<sup>th</sup>
house (the house of the father); and then, using that as a new starting point,
taking the 3<sup>rd</sup> house (the house of brothers) from the 4<sup>th</sup>,
which is the 6<sup>th</sup> house of the radical chart.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The house pertaining to a second
(part-time) job would be the 8<sup>th</sup> (the 3<sup>rd</sup> from the 6<sup>th</sup>),
since employment is a 6<sup>th</sup> house matter, and the duplicate of
anything is considered as its “brother” (3<sup>rd</sup> house). <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By contrast, the house of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">potential </i>duplicate of a thing is “its
house from its house”—so a new car (not yet purchased) would be in the 5<sup>th</sup>
house (the 3<sup>rd</sup> from the 3<sup>rd</sup>); things not yet realized are
said to be derived from themselves (what exists already).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Once these principles are clearly understood, it becomes possible, with
a little practice, to identify the planetary and zodiacal elements underlying
any scene or situation—something like focusing on the brush-strokes or pixils
of which a picture is composed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A
rusty nail or a dead cat pertains to Saturn, a violin to Venus, a laptop
computer to Mercury; a policeman directing traffic corresponds to Mars and
Mercury, his badge to the Sun, his gun to Mars, his black uniform to Saturn,
and so on.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Medical Astrology made much use of these Correspondences.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The four Humors (blood, phlegm, black
bile, yellow bile) were understood in relation to the four Temperaments and the
four Elements, with obvious astrological associations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The concept of Melosthesia associates
the parts of the body with the 12 signs of the Zodiac (Aries with the head,
Taurus with the neck, Gemini with the shoulders, Cancer with the heart, and so
on).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A Decumbiture chart is
erected for the moment the patient falls ill (takes to his bed), and is
analyzed according to special rules in order to ascertain the seat of the
illness and its cause, and to develop a prognosis for the progress and outcome
of the disease.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the quotations
from Lilly demonstrate,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>all of the
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">materia medica</i> have planetary and
zodiacal correspondences, and these are used in conjunction with the theory of
the humors in order to select an appropriate regimen of treatment.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">In addition to the planets, traditional Astrology makes much use of the
Fixed Stars.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is indeed a
complex and difficult subject.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Cardanus
says, “some [things] are neither known, nor can be known, as the complete
commixtures and distinct virtues of all the Stars.” In one sense, the fixed
stars are seen as unique and irreducible influences comparable to those of the
seven planets, but for purposes of analysis, they are evaluated in terms of the
complex lore of planetary correspondences to the fixed stars.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The foundational texts for this mode of
analysis are Ptolemy’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almagest</i>,
which includes a catalogue of 1028 fixed stars which may be regarded as more or
less definitive (although later Arab astrologers were to modify and expand it
in various ways); and Ptolemy’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tetrabiblos</i>
(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Quadripartitum</i>), which includes a
tabulation (i.9) of the fixed stars in terms of their planetary
correspondences.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example,
Ptolemy writes that “the bright stars in Ursa Minor have a similar quality to
that of Saturn and, to a less degree, to that of Venus; those in Ursa Major, to
that of Mars; and the cluster of the Coma Berenices beneath the Bear’s tail, to
that of the moon and Venus; the bright stars in Draco, to that of Saturn, Mars,
and Jupiter; those of Cepheus, to that of Saturn and Jupiter; those in Bootes,
to that of Mercury and Saturn; the bright, tawny star, to that of Jupiter and
Mars, the star called Arcturus.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It will be seen from this that there are several modes of planetary
correspondence:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>some stars (like
those of Ursa Major) are associated with one planet only.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Others have a mixture of planetary associations:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>some (like those in Ursa Minor) are
associated principally with one of the planets, but have a secondary
association with a second planet; others (like those in Cepheus) combine the
influences of two planets equally; and some (like the stars in Draco) combine
the influences of three different planets.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In many cases, all the stars of a given constellation have a
similar influence; occasionally, however, individual stars (like Arcturus in
the passage just quoted) sometimes differ from other stars in the same
constellation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A later Hellenistic
work, the “Anonymous of 379,” is another source for this sort of information.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">In order to evaluate the effects of the fixed stars, it is necessary to
project them to positions along the ecliptic by converting their Right
Ascension and Declination into Longitude (with or without Latitude).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This derivation of imaginary ecliptic
positions for stars at some distance from the Ecliptic is yet another important
instance of Correspondence and Self-Similarity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Due to precession, the positions of the fixed stars slip
backward through the Zodiac at a rate of approximately one degree in 72 years.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Once these astral correspondences are combined with the planetary and
zodiacal correspondences, they enable us to interpret scenes, situations, and
events down to the smallest detail, in terms of an exceedingly complex network
of interwoven planetary and astral influences.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zohar </i>says,
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 51.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Come and see: It is written, “that brings out their host [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ts<sup>e</sup>va’am</i>] by number (Yeshayah
40:26)—the Holy One, blessed be He, brought forth all the hosts and companies
and <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 51.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">stars, each one by name and none was missing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Throughout the stars and constellations <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 51.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">of all the firmaments (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kokhovayya
u-mazzole di-r<sup>e</sup>qi‘in kull<sup>e</sup>hu</i>), leaders and
supervisors <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">n<sup>e</sup>gidin
u-ph<sup>e</sup>qiddin</i>) were appointed to administer the world, each one as
is worthy for <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>There is not even one small blade of grass in the world that does not
have a star <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">and a constellation in the firmament (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kokhovo u-mazzolo bi-r<sup>e</sup>qi‘o</i>)
that rules over it, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">and over each and every star is an appointee
(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">m<sup>e</sup>shamesh</i>) that serves
before the Holy <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">One, blessed be He, as is proper for
Him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All the stars in the
firmament are in charge <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">over this world, and they are all appointed (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">m<sup>e</sup>sham<sup>e</sup>she</i>) to
attend to (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">l<sup>e</sup>sham<sup>e</sup>sho</i>)
every <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">single thing for those that are in this
world.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>No grass, trees or
vegetables grow without <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">the supervision of the stars that stand over
them and appear to them face-to-face, each <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 15.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">one as is proper for it” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Terumah</i> 835-836).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Congregatio
Effigierum Charnii: The Hall of Images<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A
very important part of our understanding of astrological concepts arises from
the traditional Symbols and Images used to describe the Zodiac and its
subdivisions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Twelve Signs, of
course, are extremely well known.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, there are several other sets of astrological symbols that are
not so well known.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The most
important of these are the traditional symbols of the 36 Decans.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As mentioned previously, it is said
that the true meaning of each of the 12 signs is derived from the three decans
of which each of them is composed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>For example, the first sign is Aries (the Ram).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Aries is composed of the three decans
Senator, Senacher, and Sentacher (the Hellenistic names of the decans are
corruptions of their original Egyptian names).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Senator is described by Cornelius Agrippa as “a black man,
one who is standing, dressed and wrapped around with a white garment; he is of
massive body, with red eyes and great strength, and looks angry.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Agrippa describes Senacher as “a woman,
outwardly clothed with a red garment, and under it a white, stretching forth
one foot,” and Sentacher is “a pale man with red hair, dressed in red garments,
holding a golden bracelet in his left hand, and an oaken staff in his right; he
is gazing forward, restless and angry because he is unable to attain or perform
the good things he desires” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De Occulta
Philosophia</i>, II.37).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So how do
these three combine to describe the Ram?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It is not too difficult to see the scenario which arises from these
three symbols in combination:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>an
aggressive, sexually dominant Negro male, a sexually wanton white female, and a
frustrated and impotent white male who is holding a ring-shaped object
(traditionally associated with the female <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pudenda</i>).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The inner meaning of Aries the Ram may
therefore be summarized in terms of a sexual triangle involving certain
archetypal anxieties about the Negro male.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A
set of symbols for the 24 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">horae</i>
(halves of signs) was transmitted by the Indian astrologer Sphujidvaja (fl.270
A.D.).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first of the two <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">horae</i> which comprise the sign of Cancer
is described as “</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">a
woman who holds a blossoming lotus in her hand. She stands in the water, pale
as the color of a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">campaka</i> flower. Her
upper-garment and ornaments are pale like moon-beams.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hora</i> of Cancer is “a very pale man in the middle of a garden who
leans on a bright weapon. . . . holding a lotus, the beloved one pours forth
his complaints” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Yavanajataka</i>
I.14-16).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This book is believed to
be a translation of a Greek work dating to the 2<sup>nd</sup> century B.C.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There are also numerous mediaeval Latin
manuscripts which associate symbols with the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">horae</i> (University of Saskatchewan, 2009).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
28 Lunar Mansions are associated with a set of names and symbols which was
widely known and has been preserved (with variations) in numerous sources.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first lunar mansion (from 0 Aries
00’ to 12 Aries 51’26”) is called Alnath and has the image of a black lion,
dressed in hair garments, bearing a lance in his hand.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The second mansion (from 12 Aries
51’26” to 25 Aries 42’52”) is called Albotain, and its image is a crowned king.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The third lunar mansion (from 25 Aries
42’52” to 8 Taurus 34’18”) is Azoraya.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Its image is a girl with her right hand on her head.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>There
are also various sets of Degree Symbols, which purport to summarize the
significance of the individual degrees.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Most of these, such as the degrees of Charubel (1898), or the well-known
Sabian Symbols (1925), are of modern origin.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One set, however, which was recorded by Petrus de Abano
(ca.1250-ca.1316) and printed in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Astrolabium
Planum</i> (1494) of Johannes Angelus (Engel), may go back to late
Antiquity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For the first five
degrees of Aries, the symbols are as follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>1<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>a
man holding a sickle in his right hand and a crossbow in his left<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>2<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>a
man with a dog’s head, extending his right hand and holding a rod in his left<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>3<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>a
man gesturing toward things in the distance with his right hand, and grasping
his belt<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>with
his left hand<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>4<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>a
man with curled hair, with a falcon perched on his right hand and a whip in his
left<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>5<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>two
men: one chopping wood with an axe, the other holding a scepter in his right
hand<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">There
is also supposed to be a set of 360 degree symbols attributed to Ptolemy, known
variously as the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Liber imaginum Ptolemaei</i>,
or<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Liber ad Heristhonem</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This has been transmitted in numerous
mediaeval manuscripts, but has never been published as far as I know, and I
have never seen it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This, too, may
go back to a Hellenistic source.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Finally,
there is also a very old and very chaotic tradition of symbols associated with
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">paranatellonta</i> (or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">synanatellonta</i>)—the extra-zodiacal
asterisms which rise concurrently with the decans rising on the ecliptic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For these there are many sources.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For Aries, Abraham Ibn Ezra (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Reshit Chokhmah</i>, ca.1150) gives the
following <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">paranatellonta</i>:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>1<sup>st</sup>
Decan: the figure of a radiant woman, and the tail of the Sea-Fish that
resembles a serpent, and the head of the Triangle, and the form of an ox<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>2<sup>nd</sup>
Decan: fishes, and the middle of the triangle, and half of the animal, and a
woman with a comb in her hair, and a bronze armor, and the Head of the Devil.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>3<sup>rd</sup>
Decan: a young man sitting on a chair with a cover over him, and in his hand
icons, and a man bowing his head, and he is crying out to the Lord.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There also ascends the Belly of the
Fish and its head and the end of the triangle, and the second half of the Animal.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Albumasar
(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Introductorium Majus</i>, vi.1) gives a
somewhat different series of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">paranatellonta</i>
for Aries, all of which are described as being <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">iuxta Persas</i> (according to the Persians) or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ut Persae ferunt</i> (as the Persians say):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>1<sup>st</sup>
Decan:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>femina cui nomen Splendoris
filia postquam cauda Piscis Marini ac principium Trigoni caput—que Cervotauri
i.e. forme ex cervo et tauro congeste.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Post hec Cinocefalus manu sinistra candelam, dextra clavem gerens.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>2<sup>nd</sup>
Decan:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>medium Piscis Marini, medium
Trigoni medium Cervotauri, Navis, Eques manu telum gerens, Femina caput suum
pectens cum brachiis ferries, caput Meduse curvasque harpes Persei, quem Arabes
Nems, Perse Filus vocant.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>3<sup>rd</sup>
Decan:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Iuvenis cuius nomen Fasius
solio residens cum quo Equus duplex, ac posteriora Solii Filus deficiendo deos
acclamantis pectus quoque Piscis et caput postremumque Trigoni cauda
Cervotauri, secundaque medietas Frontis. [a young man whose name is Fasius,
sitting on a throne, with whom is a double horse, and behind the throne ]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
addition to these variegated sets of Symbols and Images (a term particularly
associated with the Lunar Mansions), we possess verbal descriptions (but no
visual imagery) of the 60 terms (Vettius Valens, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Anthologiae</i> i.3) and of the 144 dodecatemoria (Hephaestio, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Apotelesmatica</i> iii.4).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">These concentric levels of symbolism are obviously
of the greatest importance in traditional Astrology, enabling the astrologer to
clearly visualize and understand all sorts of astrological relationships and
combinations.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These can be of
great assistance in the analysis of a chart, particularly when it presents some
intractable problem to which the mind must recur again and again.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They also function as mnemonic devices
and can be used for meditation and as aids to reflection. The use of the Zodiac
and its subdivisions as a mnemonic device was well known in ancient times, and
was associated with Metrodorus of Scepsis (1<sup>st</sup> century B. C.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Quintilian (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Institutio Rhetorica</i>, XI.ii.22) reports that “Metrodorus . . .
found three hundred and sixty different localities in the twelve signs of the
Zodiac through which the sun passes.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>According to Cicero, “Metrodorus of Scepsis in Asia, who is said to be
still living, . . . used to say that he wrote down things he wanted to remember
in certain ‘localities’ in his possession by means of images, just as if he
were inscribing letters on wax” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De oratore</i>,
II.lxxxviii.360). W. Den Boer (1986) notes the “great importance [in classical
antiquity] of astrology as a mnemonic and organizing system. . . . Metrodorus’
‘topical system of mnemonics’ remains worthy of attention.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By means of this system one acquires 12
x 30 sections to arrange the memory’s stock in one large circle of the Zodiac
(p. 14).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Observing that Greek
historical works abound in astrological data, Den Boer suggests that these
astrological references may embody a mnemonic system, a “treasure-chamber of
memory . . . , i.e. the Zodiac and its sections or loci, in which the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">imagines</i> of history are stored” (p.
30).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Den Boer believes that modern
scholars have ignored “what the [Greek] authors took for granted, namely, a
principle of division derived from astrology” (p. 35).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He maintains that although no specific
examples of Metrodorus’ method are known, that is merely because “a quest for
them has never been made” (p. 35).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>It may be that many classical works of history and philosophy were
constructed around these symbols as a mnemonic device.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">For whatever purpose they were used, each of these
sets of symbols obviously embodies a highly developed set of astrological
correspondences.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">Astrologia Rediviva</span></u></i><u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A Postmodern Pandora’s Box</span></u><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;"> [UNFINISHED CONCLUDING SECTION]<u><o:p></o:p></u></span></div>
<!--EndFragment-->Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-44227182181547698292012-01-28T20:30:00.000-08:002012-01-31T10:31:26.203-08:00The Mirror That Does Not Reflect (2008)<br />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> The
Mirror That Does Not Reflect:<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> A Study of the Illustrations of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, a Unique<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> Astrological Manuscript from the Republic
of Georgia, in Relation to<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">
Their Source, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i> of Ottavio Beltrano <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">
by Timothy P. Grove<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<span style="color: green; font-size: 14pt;"> <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green; font-size: 14pt;"> </span></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">
Final Project<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> ISCL 873<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> Sign, Symbol
and Structure<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> Presented to <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> Dr.
Kevin D. Pittle, Ph.D.<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> School of Intercultural
Studies<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;"> Biola University<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-size: 14pt;">
10 July 2008</span></b><o:p></o:p></div>
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© 2008 by Timothy P. Grove, Biola University. All images from the manuscript entitled
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> (Q867) are the
property of Xelnac’erta Erovnuli
Cent’ri (National Centre of Manuscripts), Tbilisi, Republic of Georgia, and
have been made available exclusively for personal academic study. They may not be reproduced or
disseminated in any form. [all images omitted for now]</div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> is a unique astrological manuscript
preserved at the National Centre of Manuscripts in Tbilisi, Republic of
Georgia. The manuscript comprises
126 quarto leaves, and dates to the early 18<sup>th</sup> century,
according to the Centre’s catalogue of manuscripts (Brebadze et al.
1958:269). The text is beautifully written in both black and red ink,
using the Georgian cursive style of writing typical of the 18<sup>th</sup> century. It contains numerous hand-drawn illustrations which
successfully employ shading and characterization. It is bound in leather,
with a leather strip closed by a button to protect the book when not in
use. No title appears either on the binding or at the beginning of the
text—the title <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>
("zodiacal chiromancy") was assigned to the work by its cataloguers,
and was apparently suggested by its first illustration (on page 10 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">verso</i>), of a human hand with the
principal lines used in palmistry labeled, along with their planetary
assocations. The book’s practical binding and evidence of water-damage
suggest that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> was
the professional manual carried by an itinerant astrologer.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
I
first learned of the existence of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> in an article entitled “The Unknown History of Georgian
Astronomy” (1999) by Dr. Irakli Simonia, a Georgian astrophysicist and
archaeo-astronomer. Based on his description, this is an enigmatic and highly
unusual book, the work of an anonymous author who assembled material from a
wide variety of sources. Although
I had already obtained a copy of king Vakht’ang VI’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis Codnis C’igni</i> (1721, “book of knowledge of creation”), I
was very interested in obtaining another contemporary astrological text with
which to compare it. When I was in
Tbilisi in August 2007, I attempted to get access to the manuscript, but the
reading room at the Xelnac’erta Erovnuli Cent’ri (National Centre of
Manuscripts) was closed for the month due to the hot, humid conditions. However, I was fortunate in gaining the
friendship of Dr. Buba Kudava, the director of the National Centre of
Manuscripts.</div>
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<span style="color: black;">As I
learned from Dr. Simonia’s article, one of the more interesting features of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> is its cryptic
reference to a western philosopher named “Belorano,” whom the author compares
to Aristotle and praises in the highest terms—a person unknown to the annals of
western science. The manuscript
also makes some enigmatic references to satellites of Venus and Mars which find
no basis in the science of the time, but find an interesting parallel in a
passage in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gulliver’s Travels</i> (1726)
where Swift notes that the inhabitants of Laputa, apparently by using
reflecting telescopes, had discovered two satellites of Mars, and gives
accurate details about their orbits and orbital periods—150 years before their
discovery (1877) by Asaph Hall of the U.S. Naval Observatory (Simonia 1998).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">After
talking with Dr. Simonia, my thoughts kept returning to the name Belorano. </span><span style="color: black;">Based on my knowledge of Italian,
when I first saw the name spelled this way, I had a feeling that the correct
reading must be "Beltrano,” and </span><span style="color: black;">unconsciously,
I started making that adjustment mentally. However, I could find no record of any scientist,
philosopher, or astronomer named Beltrano. Finally, on 17 April 2008, I tried searching for this name
on the internet, and discovered that one Ottavio Beltrano (fl. c1620-1671), a
printer and bookseller who worked in Cosenza, Naples, Terranova, and Ancona,
had produced a well-known almanac, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i>, which went through as many as 45 editions during the 17<sup>th</sup>
and 18<sup>th</sup> centuries.
Beltrano also wrote and published a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Breve
Descrittione del Regno di Napoli</i> (1640), the last chapter of which was
concerned with astrology and cabalism (Hinck & Wall, 2008). When I learned about this, I was sure I
was on the right track, and two days later (Saturday, 19 April 2008), I had the
good fortune of finding a facsimile of the entire text of a 1754 Venetian
edition of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> on
the Italian “Laberinto Ermetico” website.
A comparison between this and the Georgian <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> quickly confirmed that much of the text and
most of the illustrations were derived from this Italian source. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">The
earliest edition I can find of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i> was printed at Naples by Ottavio Beltrano in 1639 (OCLC 2008);
internal evidence (the horoscope described and illustrated on pages 154-156 of
the 1754 edition) suggests a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">terminus
post quem</i> of 1635. In fact,
Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> is an
expansion of an earlier work, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
perpetuo di Rutillio Benincasa</i> (1593). Rutilio Benincasa (probably a pseudonym, 1555-1626?)
published the earliest version of this almanac in 1593, and there were Venetian
editions of 1612, 1613, and 1622 prior to the time when Beltrano assumed
responsibility for it (OCLC 2008).
Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
“diviso in cinque parti,” is updated, “corrected,” and greatly expanded. It is not only an astrological almanac,
but contains Beltrano’s original treatises on such subjects as navigation,
phrenology, physiognomy, medicine, mathematics, and lotto. It thus presents a veritable treasury
of popular lore and pseudo-science, offering a rare glimpse of the popular
culture of 17<sup>th</sup> century Italy.
The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> is best
described as a piece of ephemeral literature—a handbook for hucksters, quacks,
and wise women, a somewhat sinister Italian counterpart to Poor Richard. The book is written in standard Italian
(Florentine dialect), though features such as the consistent use of the plural article “li” betray its
southern origin. As is often the
case with Venetian printing, the Remondini edition of 1754 is strikingly
bad—riddled with errors of every kind.
It will be necessary for me to locate earlier editions in order to
assess the condition of the text which Beltrano actually transmitted.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span style="color: black;">Date of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<span style="color: black;"> There
are a number of indications as to the date of this manuscript. For one thing, it refers to Beltrano in
the past tense (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">beltrano iq’o</i>), which
appears to establish a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">terminus post quem</i>
of 1671. However, the series of eclipses described on pages 31r-35r, which I
have conclusively dated to the years 1652-1664, are described in the future
tense (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dabneleba ikneba</i>).The listing
of countries on 48v includes Sakartvelo, K’akheti, and Imereti. This presumably reflects a period of
time when there were three Georgian kingdoms, prior to the union of Sakartvelo
and K’akheti under Erekle II in 1762—which may thus be regarded as a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">terminus ante quem</i>. In addition, I have established that at
one point the perpetual almanac section of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> was updated by 84 years.
This demonstrates that the book was in use for a century or more! <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span style="color: black;">Place of Writing<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<span style="color: black;"> A
number of circumstances suggest that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> originated in western Georgia. The language of the manuscript contrasts markedly with the
learned scientific language cultivated by king Vakht’ang VI in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis Codnis C’igni</i>. It is generally easy to read and
understand, and is characterized by the long case endings (-sa, -isa, -ita)
typical of the more conservative western dialect. Numerous archaic or regional forms occur, such as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mtovare</i> for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mtvare</i> (“moon”—though both forms appear side by side on page 34r), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kueq’ana</i> for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kveq’ana</i> (“earth, world”), old forms for the numbers 11-19, e.g. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">atertmet’i</i> for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tertmet’i</i> (“eleven”), </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">meatormet’e
</i>for<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> metormet’e </i>(“twelfth”),<span style="color: black;"> and the Old Genitive in –ta (e.g. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">k’acta</i> for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">k’acebis</i>). This linguistic evidence suggests that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> may have been
written in Kutaisi (capital of the western kingdom of Imereti), or perhaps
somewhere along the Black Sea—Poti, or perhaps Zugdidi, the seat of the princes
of Samegrelo (Mingrelia). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">In
addition, several passages point to the input of an Italian speaker, as on 36v,
where the Latin world <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">caelum</i> is transcribed
as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chelum</i>, or on 46v, where four
parts of a diagram are labeled <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a, b, ch,
d</i> (where the Georgian convention would be <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a, b, g, d</i>). This may
also point to the Black Sea coast, which was frequently visited by Italian
merchants and missionaries. The
efforts of Roman Catholic missionaries had already resulted in the first
printed book in the Georgian language, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Dittionario
Giorgiano e Italiano</i> (1629) compiled by Stefano Paolini and Nicephorus
Irbach (Nikoloz Irubakidze-Cholokashvili) (Chikobava and Vateishvili 1983;
Mikaberidze 2006). Cholokashvili
(1585-1658) had been sent on an embassy to Rome by Teimuraz I of K’akheti
(eastern Georgia), who also welcomed the missionary </span>Cristoforo De’ Castelli<span style="color: black;">; De’ Castelli documented his work in Georgia (1627-1654)
in a fascinating album of sketches (available online at http://beroma.livejournal.com/6784.html).
In 1628, Urban VIII entrusted the
Theatines with the mission to Georgia, and they were joined by the Capuchins in
1661 (Catholic Encyclopedia).
During the first decades of the 18<sup>th</sup> century, Roman Catholic
missionaries were also present in Tbilisi, where they educated prince Vakhushti
(1696-1757), the son of king Vakht’ang VI, himself a secret convert to
Catholicism (“Vakhushti,” 2008).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span style="color: black;">Authorship of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<span style="color: black;"> There
are very few clues as to the authorship of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>. Dr. Simonia
mentioned two theories which have been circulated. For one thing, it has been suggested that the manuscript was
written by king Vakh’tang VI, who was responsible for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis Codnis C’igni</i> (1721, translated from the Persian of ‘Ali
Qushji) and left several other astronomical works in manuscript. Simonia is dismissive of this
suggestion, but suspects that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> was the work of a Georgian priest. In any case, I think it probable that one of the Italian
missionaries had a hand in the project.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<u><span style="color: black;">Contents of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i><o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
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<span style="color: black;"> It
is sufficiently clear that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> is an eclectic text, a collection derived from a variety of
sources besides the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>
(which appears to account for no more than 25% of the text). The introductory section is very likely
an original composition; it begins by quoting from the book of Job and has
quite a bit to say about mirrors (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sark’e</i>)
and about hell (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jojoxeti</i>). There are two successive descriptions
of the seven planets (3r-5r and 5r-9v).
The first set appears to be original, and contains some very strange
material. The second set is
definitely drawn from some other source, since the top half of page 7r has been
left blank, with a note in the margin:
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">zoharis ambavi ak’lda dedans</i>
(“description of Venus is missing from the original”). The section on chiromancy may or may
not be original, but is definitely not drawn from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>.
Certain sections in the middle of the book demonstrate a knowledge of
recent scientific advances made in western Europe, as for example a discussion
of the discoveries made by Galileo using a telescope; this material also
appears to be original. The later
sections, which pertain to agriculture, appear to be adapted from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, but I have not yet
been able to confirm this. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="color: black;">As Simonia observes, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> “</span>contains diverse types of information. On the one hand the manuscript contains
information that was modern for its time—e.g., information on telescopic
observations by Galileo, on the sizes and shapes of the planets, and on the
daily and annual motion of celestial bodies. On the other hand the manuscript also includes detailed
descriptions of Ptolemy's outmoded geocentric system” (1999: ¶44). <o:p></o:p></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> is thus a miscellany
which is partly drawn from Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i> (1639)—itself a miscellany built around the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco perpetuo di Rutilio Benincaso</i> (1593).<o:p></o:p></div>
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<u>Procedure<o:p></o:p></u></div>
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My
approach to the study of this manuscript has been greatly influenced by the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Structural Anthropology</i> of Claude
Lévi-Strauss (1963), particularly the chapter entitled “Do Dual Organizations
Exist?” I have sought to apply the
principles of Lévi-Strauss by centering my initial study of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> not on its text, but
on its illustrations. In
attempting to do a structural analysis of these illustrations, I have relied
heavily on counting, classification, and left-right orientation, in an attempt
to discover patterns, similarities, and differences.<span style="color: black;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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In the sections which follow, I
will analyze each of those illustrations from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> which has a clear parallel in Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>. For each illustration, I will use the
following procedure: first, I will
carefully describe the illustration as it appears in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>.
Then, I will attempt to give an analysis or interpretation of the
illustration, <u>without reference to the Georgian text</u>. I will then compare this illustration
to its counterpart in Beltrano, discussing the similarities and differences
between the two. Finally, where
possible, I will present any insights about the illustration which arise from
an examination of the accompanying Georgian text.</div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
10v</div>
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<img align="left" height="136" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image004.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="267" /><img height="267" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image006.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2" width="169" /></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
p. 221 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 232</div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
p. 236 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 29</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">1. Diagram of a hand (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">10v</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<u>Description</u> </div>
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This is an illustration of a
person’s right hand, with a shirt-cuff visible. The hand is drawn realistically, with effective use of
shading, although the fingers seem unusually long. This is clearly a palmistry diagram, since the various lines
on the palm of the hand are clearly indicated. Eight specific regions on the palm have been labeled,
including the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">montes</i> at the base of
each of the four fingers. In
addition, a number of marks have been drawn on the hand, in the form of crosses
and what appear to be individual tally-marks. A few of them are more
complex: crosses with an
additional line added to create a five-pointed figure (2 examples), and one
cross bisected by an additional line to create what looks like an asterisk. The fingertips are marked also: the tips of the ring and little fingers
with three dots; the tip of the middle finger with two tally-marks; the tip of
the index finger with two dots.
There are also 12 dots on the palm of the hand, near the base of the thumb.</div>
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<u>Interpretation</u>
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I would interpret this illustration
as a simple presentation of the elementary principles of palmistry, except for
the presence of these mysterious lines, dots, crosses, and stars. What do they mean? I can think of two possible
interpretations: either they are
some kind of numerical notation (maybe an attempt to transpose a specific
horoscope onto the palm of the hand—eminently possible to do since horoscopic
astrology and chiromancy share the same planetary principles); or they may be a
way of recording specific small features found on the palm of the hand (in
which case we may have the same process working in the other direction—a
horoscope erected to reflect the specific features of a specific human
hand). I know very little about
palmistry, and further study may well elucidate this problem. I should note that the title assigned
to this manuscript, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>
(“zodiacal chiromancy”), is probably descriptive of this illustration (which is
the first one to appear).</div>
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Beltrano provides no exact parallel
to this illustration. However, there are no fewer than four illustrations of a
human hand to be found in that work, as follows:</div>
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p.
221: illustration of a right hand
with shirt-cuff visible. The
thumb, middle, and little fingers are extended. All three of these are marked with the number “31”. The index and ring fingers are closed
(turned down), and these are marked with the number “30”. The accompanying text explains that
this is a way of determining the number of days in each month (starting with
March and counting the thumb and little finger twice when reversing direction,
“30” also being used to indicate the short month of February).</div>
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p.
232: illustration of a left hand
with an ornate shirt-cuff. The
fingers and thumb are closed, and the numbers “19. 9. 29” are printed along the
thumb. The accompanying text and
table make it clear that this illustrates the use of the “golden number” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">aureus numerus</i>) associated with each
year of the 19-year Metonic cycle, again using the joints of the hand as a
mnemonic device.</div>
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p.
236: illustration of a left hand
with shirt-cuff visible; the fingers are extended so that each one has six
joints (but a shadow intervenes between the first four joints and the final two
joints, perhaps suggesting another hand with another set of fingers held behind
the first set). Each row of joints
is marked with a letter (A, B, C, D, E, F, G), and each joint is distinguished
by a separate number as well (from 1 to 29, with one further number which I
cannot identify). The number 23
appears not on the fingers, but at the base of the index finger (the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mons Jovis</i>), along with the Jupiter
glyph. The remaining <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">montes</i> are also marked with their
respective planetary glyphs:
Saturn at the base of the middle finger, the Sun at the base of the ring
finger, and Mercury at the base of the little finger. The base of the thumb (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mons
Veneris</i>) is marked with the Venus glyph, the palm of the hand with the Mars
glyph, and the heel of the hand with what appears to be another Sun with rays,
but which closer inspection reveals to be a crescent Moon. A sprig of leaves and flowers is
attached to the thumb by means of a string (I have no idea what this means). The accompanying text explains how to
use the hand as a mnemonic to calculate the dates of the “movable feasts”
(Septuagessima, Quadragessima, Easter, Ascension, Pentecost, and Corpus
Christi, using the “dominical letter” assigned to each year).</div>
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p. 292: illustration of a left hand with shirt-cuff visible; a dark
line passes under the thumb, crosses the first three fingers, then passes
between the ring and little fingers.
Directly above the hand appears an image of the sun (solemn face
surrounded by 12 rays). Numbers
are printed on the page as follows:
at the end of the index finger, “24 12”, at the end of the middle
finger, “3 1”, at the end of the ring finger, “24 14”, at the end of the little
finger, “2 15”; below the fingers two rows of numbers are found: “18 17 16” (top row) and “19 17”
(bottom row). The accompanying
text makes it clear that this illustrates a method of using one’s fingers to
estimate the hour of the day, based on the angle of the Sun.</div>
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There
is thus no strong parallel between the hand illustrations in the two
works. While those in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> demonstrate how to
use the hand as a mnemonic and as a time-telling device, the one in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> is clearly concerned
with palmistry. The closest
parallel is to the illustration on page 236 of Beltrano, where the seven
planets associated with the chiromantic <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">montes</i>
are indicated; it is interesting that these are supplied gratuitously—they have
nothing whatever to do with the calculation of the dates of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">festa mobilia</i>!</div>
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<u>Insights provided by the Georgian text</u> </div>
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The nine labels written on the diagram read as follows:</div>
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Base of little finger: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mzis mta</i> (mountain of the Sun)</div>
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Base of ring finger: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ot’aridis mta</i> (mountain of Mercury)</div>
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Base of middle finger: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">zohalis mta</i> (mountain of Saturn)</div>
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Base of index finger: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mushtaris mta</i> (mountain of Jupiter)</div>
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Base of thumb: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">zoharis mta</i> (mountain of Venus)</div>
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Joint of thumb: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ceris (mk’iduloba?)</i> (X of thumb)</div>
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Palm of hand: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">marexis mindori</i> (plain of Mars)</div>
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Heel of hand: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mtvaris mindori</i> (plain of the Moon)</div>
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(near base of thumb): <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sicocxlis xazi</i> (line of life)</div>
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There is nothing surprising here, except to note that the
Georgian writer has reversed and improperly labeled the first two: in palmistry, the base of the little
finger is properly designated <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mons
Mercurii</i>, while the base of the ring finger is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mons Apollonis</i> (“mountain of Apollo,” which is associated with the
Sun). Such an error might be
attributed to the writer’s ineptitude or lack of familiarity with the subject
matter. However, it is the first
of many striking errors of this kind, as we shall see; errors of such grossness
and frequency as to appear deliberate!
For reference, a well-known (and more accurate) representation of the
hand and its planetary associations is reproduced below (from Agrippa’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De Occulta Philosophia</i>).</div>
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Finally,
it must be noted that the succeeding pages (11v-12r) embody a detailed
explanation of the hand-diagram.
Although I have not yet had a chance to go over this passage in detail,
I have noted that the text contains the same hatchmarks, crosses, and crows’
feet which appear in the illustration.
A careful reading of that passage will no doubt elucidate this
mysterious diagram.</div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">hand
diagram from Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De Occulta Philosophia Libri iii</i></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
2. Diagram of a lunar eclipse (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">30r</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<img alt="30r" height="245" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image012.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_3" width="260" /> <img height="441" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image014.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_4" width="130" /></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
30r <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 58</div>
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This illustration obviously
represents either a solar or lunar eclipse (depending upon the identification
of the circle in the center of the diagram—does it represent the earth or the
moon?). It is very interesting
that the Sun is portrayed with two faces—one facing toward the center and one
facing away from the center. The
one facing away is smiling, lacks a nose, and the eyes are closed. The one facing inward is not smiling,
has a nose, and the eyes are open.
These faces are drawn in black ink, while the sun’s rays, which resemble
a lion’s mane, are drawn in red ink.
Two straight lines have been constructed, tangent to these circles to
create a cone, and the part of it extending beyond the central circle is shaded
in. To the left and right of this
cone, opposite the sun, are two small black circles. Three straight red lines divide the diagram into six parts,
with a thick red line passing across the center and two thinner diagonal lines
crossing it at a 60º angle, dividing it into six 60º segments. The central circle is also bisected by
a thick red line perpendicular to the horizontal line. This results in a division of the
circle into eight unequal segments (60º, 30º, 30º, 60º, 60º, 30º, 30º,
60º). An examination of this
central circle reveals that the draftsmanship is inexact—the diagonals
intersect somewhat to the right of where the horizontal and vertical lines intersect,
and the lines which form the cone are tangent to the circle on the right, but
cut across it on the left side. At
a distance from the center there are five circles; the two outer ones, as well
as the fourth one in, are drawn in red ink and are concentric with the center
of the diagram; the third and fifth circles (counting from the outside) are
drawn in black ink and are centered slightly to the right and left of the
center of the diagram. The three
innermost circles pass through the small circles to the right and left of the
cone, and they also divide the sun into its two faces. The center points of the two small
black circles lie along these two larger black circles.</div>
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<u>Interpretation<o:p></o:p></u></div>
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The shaded part of the cone is
obviously the shadow cast by the central body. The two circles to left and right of shadow must be
pre-eclipse and post-eclipse lunar (or earth) positions. Since they are smaller than the central
body, it would be logical to conclude that they represent lunar positions, so
that this diagram represents an eclipse of the moon. The eccentricity of the larger circles along which they are
centered also supports this idea, since they may suggest the moon’s elliptical
orbit around the earth. The most
interesting feature of this diagram is the two faces of the Sun—the one facing
inward conscious and dynamic while the one facing outward appears to be
asleep. This sun with two faces is
completely inexplicable to me.<u><o:p></o:p></u></div>
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<u>Comparison to Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i></u> </div>
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On page 58, a comparable but much
simpler diagram is found—there is a central sphere with shading, which, like
the diagram in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
could be taken to represent either the earth or the moon. The sun appears at the top (reversing
the arrangement seen in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>), and is depicted with a face and rays. At the bottom of the diagram there is a
strange shaded crescent shape (points inward), with three concentric arcs in
the middle forming three bands like those of a rainbow; the inner and outer of
these are shaded in. These could
be taken to represent the moon (from the crescent shape), or they could be a
crude representation of a human eye.
The most interesting feature of Beltrano’s diagram is the lines which
connect these bodies: First, the
central disk is divided evenly into three parts (segments of 120º). Then, four lines extend from the Sun’s
mouth to the center of this disk and to the extremities of the three lines
which trisect it. From these
points, four lines are extended downward, where all four converge at the center
of the innermost arc of the figure at the bottom of the page. The accompanying text contains the
following statement: “L’ecclisse
del sole: il Corpo Lunare
s’interpone tra l’aspetto nostro, e il Corpo Solare”—so clearly “l’aspetto
nostro” is represented by a human eye, and Beltrano’s diagram (though not
necessarily its counterpart in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>) represents a solar eclipse, not a lunar eclipse. There is nevertheless no question that
the two diagrams are parallel, since what follows next in both <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> is a set of
illustrations depicting a series of lunar eclipses.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<u>Insights provided by the Georgian text</u> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
The heading at the top of page 30r <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">reads tavi meatormet’e mzisa da mtovaris
dabnelebisa</i> [“chapter 12, of the eclipses of the sun and moon”], and below
the diagram the chapter begins as follows: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">beltrano munajibi iq’o
erti vinme aseti mecnieri rome chuns dros amistana mecnieri da gonieri ar
gamosula tu es arist’ot’elis dros q’opiliq’o imasac ars axsenebda da aman
q’ovltatvin ase gvarad gaadvila es varsk’ulavt mricxveloba tu romels c’elic’ads
romels tveshi romels k’virashi romels dgheshi romels zhamshi romels burjze
romels nac’ilshi dabneldeba mze anu mtovare gvauc’q’ebs</i> ["The astrologer Belorano was a scientist
who for wisdom has no equal in our times.
Had he lived at the time of Aristotle, then the latter would have paled
before him, and this (man) greatly simplified astrology; he could determine in
which year, in which month, in which week, on what day, in which degree, in
what constellation, and in what minute eclipses of the Sun and Moon would take
place."] While highly
interesting, this passage does not reveal whether our diagram represents a
solar or a lunar eclipse; the remainder of the chapter explains the reasons why
both solar and lunar eclipses occur, but sheds no further light on the
diagram. I suspect that the
diagram in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> is
intended to represent a lunar eclipse, not a solar eclipse as in Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<u>Additional
possibilities</u> <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
Why is this
diagram particularly associated with Beltrano, and why does it differ so
markedly from its counterpart in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i>? The extravagant
praise of “the astrologer Beltrano” (which, of course has no counterpart in the
Italian text) may simply function as an introduction to the series of eclipses
which follow, since these are clearly extracted from Beltrano’s almanac. The passage is very curious. Ottavio Beltrano (fl. c1620-1671,
Naples) worked primarily as a printer.
He produced only two original works: his additions to the almanac of Rutilio Benincasa (1593)
which resulted in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>
(1639), and his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Descrittione del Regno di
Napoli</i> (1640). From a western
European point of view, Beltrano remains an obscure personage, little more than
a footnote to the history of Italian literature or western science. From what little can be said about him,
it is interesting to note that he apparently had an interest in occult
subjects: not only do his
contributions to the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>
include sections on astrological <span style="color: black;">phrenology
and physiognomy</span>, but also, the
twelfth and final chapter of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Descrittione
del Regno di Napoli</i> is devoted to witchcraft and cabbalism (Hinck &
Wall, 2008). An examination of the
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Descrittione</i> will probably yield important
insights for the present project. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
After careful
examination, “Beltrano’s Diagram” (if we may so designate it) in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> remains
enigmatic: the solar eclipse in
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> has seemingly
been transformed into a lunar eclipse. One moon has become two moons, with two
separate orbits. The sun has
shifted from top to bottom, and now has two faces, one awake and one asleep. I
would like to add one more curious observation: as we have noted, the two-faced Sun is surrounded by red
rays; however, closer inspection reveals that gold ink has been used to extend
these rays further outward. These
golden rays overlap two words of the text concerning Beltrano: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">iq’o
erti</i> (lit. “he was one”). It
is possible that some deep mystery is concealed here. I keep returning to the binary structure—two moons, two
orbits, two faces, the dark horizontal line which divides the illustration in
half, and of course the celestial opposition implied by the eclipse itself. One
way of encoding a message is through the divergences between two texts. For example, if I write THNAK YOU, I
have suggested a binary comparison between THNAK (an incorrect spelling) and
THANK (the correct spelling); and in doing so I have drawn attention to the
word “thank,” and specifically to the letters A and N (in either order). The message I am encrypting thus
becomes the mediating third between two texts. The writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> may possibly be doing something of this kind, inviting a
careful comparison between “Beltrano’s Diagram” and its counterpart in the
printed Italian source. It
may be that these books are the repository of a secret which is revealed only
when they are laid out side by side.
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
Both of these
diagrams invite detailed geometric analysis, and both have curious and
inexplicable features. In the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, for example, why is
the lunar disk trisected, and why do the four rays emanate from the sun’s
mouth? I think this is a promising
line of inquiry, and intend to pursue it further, as time allows.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">3. Illustrations of a series of lunar
eclipses (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">31r-35r</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img alt="30v-31r" height="76" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image016.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_5" width="168" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="31v-32r" height="147" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image018.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_46" width="284" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
31r</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 31v-32r</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="33v-34r" height="155" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image020.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_47" width="237" /><img alt="32v-33r" height="162" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image022.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_6" width="184" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 32v-33r <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 33v-34r</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img alt="34v-35r" height="130" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image024.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_7" width="303" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 34v-35r</div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="58" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image026.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_10" width="145" /><img height="139" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image028.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_8" width="160" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Almanacco Perpetuo</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">, p. 59 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 60<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="257" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image030.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_12" width="88" /><img align="left" height="256" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image032.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_11" width="90" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img height="258" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image034.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_9" width="100" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Almanacco Perpetuo</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">, p. 61 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 62
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 63<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="122" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image036.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_13" width="73" /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Almanacco Perpetuo</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;">, p. 64</span><u> <o:p></o:p></u></div>
<u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></u>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Description</u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
When
I first saw these pages, I was awed by their calm beauty—the dark parts of the
lunar faces are hatched with dark blue ink, while the bright parts are
illuminated with a wash of shell gold ink. The 20 moons are mostly drawn along the left margin of the
pages, surrounded by text. Only
one of them (32r) is drawn inside the right margin. In each case, the moons on the other side of the sheet are
dimly visible through the page.
These illustrations are each about the size of a nickel. Though probably intended to be all alike,
the illustrator has indulged his whimsy in drawing the faces to suggest a
variety of droll characters. Of
the 20 moons which appear in this series, four are completely dark, while the
others are shaded to varying degrees, always beginning from the bottom of the
face. It is interesting to note
that the first moon of the series (31r) has a dark double line extending from its left eye to its
lower left cheek—is this intended to suggest a face stained with tears?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Interpretation<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
These
are obviously depictions either of lunar phases or lunar eclipses. We may readily discard the former
possibility, since neither full nor half moons appear, and the shading is from
bottom to top, not right to left.
The question is, assuming they are depicted in order, when did these
eclipses occur, and over how long a span of time? It might be possible to determine this by estimating the
totality of the eclipse for each drawing in the series, then checking this list
against a table of historical eclipses (beginning with the 17<sup>th</sup> and
18<sup>th</sup> centuries). But I
won’t do that for now, since the text may provide a short-cut!</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Comparison to Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Beltrano’s
illustrations are crude by comparison, but still have a subtle and mysterious
appeal. There are 15 lunar disks,
without faces. They appear in a
similar arrangement along the left margin, interspersed with text. Of these 15, two are completely dark. The rest are partial eclipses—nine of
them with shading beginning from the bottom, and (strangely enough), four of
them, associated with the years 1665, 1666, 1667, and 1669, with shading
beginning from the top! The
Italian text takes no notice of this distinction, and I will have to look into
this, both in terms of the actual eclipses of the years 1665 to 1674 and in
terms of the iconography of eclipses.
The Italian text clearly explains that these illustrations depict a
series of eclipses visible in Europe during the years 1665-1674. But very strangely, the text begins
with the eclipses of the years 1670, 1671, 1672, 1673, and 1674—but then the
series continues with the eclipses of 1665 (two conflicting series for that
year appearing one after the other; a series of eclipses for 1665 appears on p.
61, while p. 62 continues with a different series of eclipses for 1665,
immediately followed by the series for 1666), 1666, 1667, 1668, and 1669. This does not appear to be a binding
error, unless the page numbers (at the top of each page) and reading aids (at
the foot of each page) were somehow added later in the process. This does not remove the possibility
that there was an error in the collation of the pages delivered to the
printer. This question is
complicated by the fact that the earliest known version of this work was the
almanac of Rutilio Benincaso (1593); later, it was revised and greatly expanded
by Ottavio Beltrano (fl. 1620-1660).
It was again reworked (by Beltrano or someone else) to create the
1670-1674/1665-1669 series we have here, which has been retained even in this
edition of 1754. There is no way
of knowing at what point in this process the two halves of the series were
reversed, or how far this feature persisted through the almanac’s history of
transmission.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
It is interesting how the eclipses
on the other side of the page can be seen in reverse—apparently the ink has
bled through. By this reckoning,
there are in all 30 eclipses (15 eclipses and 15 “ghosts,” mirror-images of the
eclipses on the other side of the page); there is a hole in page 61, and now we
are looking out into yet another space!
On page 61 there appears even a ghost of a ghost: the total eclipse of 1673 (on the
facing page) is dimly seen.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img height="443" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image038.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_10" width="299" /></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
p. 61 (whole page, showing “ghosts”)<u><br clear="ALL" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</u><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Insights provided by the Georgian text</u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
Georgian text follows the pattern found in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, describing a series of eclipses spread over a
period of years. The years, each
of which contain anywhere from one to four eclipses, are indicated by a system
of numerical notation which employs Georgian letters to represent numbers. However, this system differs from the
one in common use, and I have so far been unable to find any parallel or any
explanation of it. Each year is
indicated by the abbreviation KK’SA, followed by a two or three letter
sequence. My best guess is that
KK’SA may be an abbreviation for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kveq’anisa</i>
(“of the world”—though I can’t explain why K’ would be substituted for
Q’). The phrase could then be
interpreted to mean “anno mundi”; but the numbers which follow don’t appear to
correspond to any commonly used system of dating, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">anno mundi</i> or otherwise.
For example, the numbers listed here (from T’M to T’NG) would normally
be taken to represent the numbers 340 through 353. Whatever they mean, I will tabulate the years below, along
with the eclipses listed for each:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>pages</u> <u>year-number</u> <u>type
of eclipse</u> <u>date</u> <u>time</u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
31r-31v T’M lunar 24
Mar. 9:15 </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
solar 7
Apr. 6:50</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar 17
Sep. 10:19</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
[no
parallel in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
31v T’MA lunar 13
Mar. 9:12</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
[no
parallel in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A.P</i>.]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
31v-32r T’MB
lunar 2
Mar. 11:58</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
solar 12
Aug. (uncertain)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar 27
Aug. 4:24</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
[no
parallel in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A.P</i>.]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>pages</u> <u>year-number</u> <u>type
of eclipse</u> <u>date</u> <u>time</u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
32r-32v T’MG solar 6
Feb. 20:37</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(3
others, not visible)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
[corresponds
to the year 1665 (second version, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A.P</i>.,
p. 62), but the </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
time is given as
10:37]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
32v T’MD lunar 11
Jan. 3:26</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
solar 26
Jan. 20:31</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
[corresponds
to the year 1666 (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A.P</i>., p. 62), but
the time of the </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
lunar eclipse is
given as 23:16]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
32v-33r T’ME lunar 25
Jun. 10:28</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar 20
Dec. 2:10</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(2
others, not visible)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
[corresponds
to the year 1667 (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A.P</i>., p. 63), but
the time of the </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
lunar eclipse is
given as 0:28]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
33r T’MV solar 31
May 15:45</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar 14
Jun. 22:58</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar 9
Nov. (around
noon)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
solar 24
Nov. (mid-morning)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
[corresponds
to the year 1668 (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A.P</i>., p. 63), but
the time of the first </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
solar
eclipse is given as 24:42, the date of the first lunar eclipse as </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
15
June, while the second solar eclipse is said to have occurred “around midnight”]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
33r-33v T’MZ lunar 6
May 23:[ ]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
solar 21
May -----</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar 29
Oct. 7:04</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
solar 14
Nov. 23:41</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
[corresponds
to the year 1669 (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A.P</i>., p. 63-64),
but the date of the first</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar
eclipse is given as 26 May (obviously an error) at 14:11, the date</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
of
the first solar eclipse as 20 May at 16:46, and the date of the second</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
solar
eclipse as 13 November at 3:34 PM]</div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>pages</u> <u>year-number</u> <u>type
of eclipse</u> <u>date</u> <u>time</u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
33v T’ME<sup>y</sup> lunar 21
Apr. 22:15</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
solar 3
Oct. 22:34</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar 18
Oct. -----</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
solar 2
Nov. 19:48</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
[corresponds
to the year 1670 (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A.P</i>., p. 59), but
the date of the first</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar
eclipse is given as 24 April, that of the first solar eclipse as</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2
October, the time of the second lunar eclipse as 0:52 PM, and that </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
of
the second solar eclipse as 13:48]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
34r T’MT solar 30
Mar. 1:[ ]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar 14
Apr. [ ]:28</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
solar 23
Sep. 18:53</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar 7
Oct. 7:48</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
[corresponds
to the year 1671 (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A.P</i>., p. 59), but
the time of the first</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
solar eclipse is
given as 0:02 AM, and that of the first lunar eclipse as</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
14:28]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
34r T’N solar 19
Mar. -----</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
solar 12
Sep. -----</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
[corresponds
to the year 1672 (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A.P</i>., p. 60), but
the dates of the two</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
eclipses
are given as 9 March and 21 September]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
34v T’NA lunar 21
Feb. 9:47</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
solar 19
Mar. 5:47</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar 28
Aug. -----</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
solar 1
Sep. 8:08</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
[corresponds
to the year 1673 (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A.P</i>., p. 60), where
the time given for</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
the
second lunar eclipse is 0:00 (midnight)]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
34v-35r T’NB lunar 11
Feb. <span style="font-size: 10pt;">(during the day)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar 12
Jul. 12:48</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar 6
Aug. 23:18</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
[corresponds
to the year 1674 (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A.P</i>., p. 60), but
the time of the first</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
eclipse
is given as 5:17 PM, that of the second eclipse as 14:48, and </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
the
date of the third eclipse as 16 August]</div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>pages</u> <u>year-number</u> <u>type
of eclipse</u> <u>date</u> <u>time</u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
35r T’NG solar 15
Jan. 20:07</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar 30
Jan. 18:47</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
solar 12
Jul. 7:48</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
lunar 26
Jul. 18:49</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
[corresponds
to the year 1665 (first version, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A.P</i>.,
p. 61), but the time </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
of
the first solar eclipse is given as 8:08 PM]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
preceding tabulation demonstrates that the first three years of eclipses in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> (years T’M, T’MA,
T’MB) have no counterpart in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i>. The next five years
(T’MG, T’MD, T’ME, T’MV, T’MZ) correspond exactly (except for numerous small
discrepancies in the numbers which may be attributable to carelessness) to
pages 62-64 of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, which
cover the years 1665-1669. The
next five years (T’ME<sup>y</sup>, T’MT, T’N, T’NA, T’NB) correspond exactly to
pages 59-60 of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
which cover the years 1670-1674.
The last year in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo <o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Xiromant’ia</i> (T’NG)
corresponds exactly to page 61 of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i>, which presents an alternate series of eclipses for the year 1665.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
eclipse dates and times given in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> can only be accurate if the numerical notation given in the
Georgian text refers to the same years (1665-1674) covered by the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>. However, in the Georgian text, the
beginning of a new decade (T’N) corresponds to the year 1672 in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, so obviously the
Georgian writer is following a different calendar. Moreover, it is interesting to note that the years T’MG and
T’NG (a decade apart) correspond to the two versions of the eclipses of 1665
which appear in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In
any case, since this section of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> translates the Italian text almost <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">verbatim</i>, we might expect the first three years (T’M, T’MA, T’MB)
to cover the eclipses of 1662, 1663, and 1664 (not covered by the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Unfortunately, a comparison of the
eclipses listed in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>
with the canon of historical eclipses found on the NASA website reveals that
they are grossly in error. I was
able to identify the series of eclipses described, and they are in fact the
eclipses of the years 1655 through 1665 (Espenak and Meeus 2007; Espenak
2003). Thus, the years given in
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> (1665-1674)
are exactly ten years off, with the exception of 1665 (first version, p. 61),
which happens to be correct. I
also identified the series listed for the years T’M, T’MA, and T’MB in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>; these correspond to
the eclipses of 1652, 1653, and 1654, and so really do cover the three years
preceding the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>
series.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
This raises some interesting
questions: was the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> simply following an
earlier edition of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>
which included those three years?
Or is this an independent contribution? In that case, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> would have to be assigned to a much earlier date (17<sup>th</sup>
century, not early 18<sup>th</sup> century as the Georgian cataloguers
suggest).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Georgian writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> has reassembled the
data given in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>
in such a way that the eleven years of eclipses are given in their proper
order—a significant improvement on the Italian source. In both cases, however, we are
examining the transmission of an old, highly technical text, to which any
modifications would prove disastrous.
Why the ten-year discrepancy between the actual eclipse data and the
years printed in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>? My best guess is that the almanac, in
the form it had around 1660, was about to go out of date (since the eclipses it
listed were those of
1655-1665). It appears that
some scoundrel has “updated” the eclipse section of the almanac by simply
advancing the date by ten years, without modifications to the data—the obvious
motivation being to sell more almanacs! Returning
to the question of dating, if we work back from 1665 (the last year in the
series as it appears in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> and the one and only year which is designated correctly in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>), we will deduct the
value T’NG (353) to obtain a result of 1312 A.D. This, however, does not correspond to any calendrical or
regnal era as far as I know, and is not a particularly remarkable year in the
history of the Caucasus (although the Mongols were expelled from Tbilisi two
years before that, in 1310). For
now, the question must remain open—but there are still several other possible
lines of attack.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In any case, since the fraudulent
“update” of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>
appears to have been perpetrated around 1660, and since the text of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> accurately presents
the eclipses of 1652-1665 in their original order (which presumably pre-dated
that revision), we may cautiously conclude that the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> was using a pre-1660
edition of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
and may possibly have originated at that much earlier date.</div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 10pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">4. Geocentric Cosmogram (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">36v</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img alt="36v-37r" height="449" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image040.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_11" width="423" /></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 36v</div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img height="448" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image042.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_12" width="434" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 452</div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Description</u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Here
we see a typical geocentric cosmogram, representing the “Ptolemaic Universe,”
in the form of 13 concentric circles, creating 12 concentric bands. These are all drawn in black ink. The central circle must represent the
earth; the next two bands are empty but bear labels. The next seven bands are marked with the glyphs representing
the seven planets, listed in their Chaldaean order: the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn. The tenth band contains 31
stars, drawn in black ink. Most of
the stars have eight points, though a few have six, seven, or nine. If space had not been reserved for the
purpose of labeling the planetary spheres, there would have been room for
exactly 34 stars. The two
outermost bands (the eleventh and twelfth) are also empty, though they have labels. Labels also appear in the four corners
of the square which surrounds all these circles. All the labels on this chart are written in red ink.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Interpretation<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This
is obviously a common sort of representation, of which numerous examples can be
found in both European and Islamic sources. Examples of metal cosmograms have
been found in Georgia dating back to prehistoric times, usually fashioned in
bronze. The</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img height="247" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image044.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_13" width="249" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">silver
cosmogram from Kolkheti, 3<sup>rd</sup> century B.C. (Simonia, 2003).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
example illustrated here is made of silver, and was found
in Kolkheti (western Georgia).
Although it dates from the third century B.C., it depicts not twelve
constellations, but four animals (a deer, a lion, an ass, and a pig). These are perhaps the
proto-constellations of a much earlier time. The central boss may represent the celestial north pole,
while the one star depicted may represent one of the circumpolar stars (in the
interpretation of Irakli Simonia), or some other star or planet. There are 18 raised wedges surrounding
the central circle, which, along with the intervening spaces, divide the circle
into 36 segments. It would be
tempting to associate these with the 36 decanates (10º subdivisions of the
zodiac). Repeated counting and
measuring suggests that the narrow circle, which separates the scalloped
pattern from the animals, is made up of 120 tiny beads (however, I know of no
astrological division of the heavens into 3º segments). Nevertheless, if I have measured and
counted correctly, it appears that each of the four 90º quadrants
(corresponding to the four animals) could be subdivided into 9 segments and 30
sub-segments. It is of course
perilous to superimpose later astrological ideas on this very early artifact—but
the numbers are quite suggestive!
While not directly relevant to the diagram we are discussing, this
silver cosomogram demonstrates the existence of indigenous astrological
traditions in the Caucasus at a very early date.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
The
most striking feature of the diagram on page 36v of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> is the bold vertical line which connects the
outermost (thirteenth) circle to the (third) circle, which passes below the
moon glyph. The planetary glyphs
are all drawn just to the left of this line, and all their labels begin just to
the right of it.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
The
two innermost bands must represent sublunar levels, perhaps the sea and the
sky. The two outermost bands
likewise must represent outer levels of the heavens which extend beyond the
planetary spheres. The 31 stars
are exceedingly interesting. Did
this number arise by chance, or does it signify something? It may refer to the 31 days of a common
month—as in the Voynich manuscript, where each of the 360 degrees of the zodiac
is represented by a unique star, each star corresponds more or less to one day. Another possibility is that it refers
to the 31 stars of Draco (as enumerated in Ptolemy’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almagest</i>). It has been
suggested that an understanding of the astrological significance of the stars
of Draco is the key to an esoteric astrological system. This may seem far-fetched, but is an
important astrological idea which at least needs to be mentioned. It is also interesting that three <u>invisible</u>
stars are implied by the space taken up by the written labels which identify
each of the planetary spheres. I can
think of no particular reason for 34 stars, or for a juxtaposition of 31
(visible) and three (invisible) stars.
If the horizontal line is taken as a divider between what is seen (to
the left of it) and what is unseen (to the right of it), then one possible
implication is that the seven planets arrayed to the left of the line have
seven invisible counterparts to the right of the line. The idea of hypothetical (unseen)
planets appears to go back to pre-Islamic Persian (i.e. magian) astrology. Finally, the line begins at the edge of
the outermost sphere, but ends at the bottom of the lunar sphere, suggesting a
sharp contrast between the heavenly spheres and the sublunary world.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Comparison to Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
illustration on page 452 of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i> has numerous resemblances to the one in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>.
The innermost circle is divided by three horizontal lines (which
probably represent the equator, artic circle, and Antarctic circle), to create
four zones. The zone south of the
equator is bisected by a vertical line, and three wavy lines run from the left
of this line to the left limb of the earth’s disk. These wavy lines may suggest a river, but I cannot explain
it. The next band, which surrounds
the earth, is shaded in, except that a white wavy line (resembling a sine-curve
with 19 peaks) divides it into two zones (19, incidentally, is the square root
of 361 and thus very close to being the square root of 360, a fact which may
well explain why the Sun’s exaltation degree falls at 19º of Aries, and why the
“lesser years” of the Sun are 19).
I assume that these represent the spheres of water and air. The next band, just below that of the
moon, is occupied by 35 tongues of flame, which must represent the sphere of
fire. The spheres of the seven
planets are marked with their respective glyphs, in the Chaldaean order as in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>. There are no labels, and no vertical
line cutting through the circles—the row of planetary glyphs occupies that
position, bisecting the upper hemisphere of the circles. As in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, the sphere beyond
that of Saturn is occupied by stars, but in this case there are 24 of
them. Most have eight points,
though the number varies from seven to nine, or even ten in one case. The 24 stars correspond (two stars per
sign) to the twelve signs of the zodiac, which are marked along the outermost
band. This band is divided into
twelve equal segments, with a zodiacal glyph marked on each one. The arrangement of the signs is a very common
one, with the first degree of Aries on the ascendant (on the left), and the
other signs succeeding it in a counterclockwise direction, ending with Pisces,
which occupies the twelfth house, just above the eastern horizon. Notice that the outermost band seen in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> does not appear
here. No labels appear on this
diagram.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Insights provided by the Georgian text</u>: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
The
diagram in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> is
labeled as follows: the central
circle (representing the earth) bears both a horizontal label, which reads <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">c’q’ali </i>(“water”), and a vertical label,
which reads <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kueq’ana</i> (“earth”). The next two bands are labeled <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">haeri</i> (“air) and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">cecxli</i> (“fire”). Then,
in order, the seven planetary spheres are labeled <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mtvaris ca </i>(“heaven of the Moon”), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ot’aridis ca</i> (“heaven of Mercury”), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">zoharas ca</i> (“heaven of Venus”), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mzis
ca</i> (“heaven of the Sun), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">marexis ca</i>
(“heaven of Mars”), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mushtaris ca</i>
(“heaven of Jupiter”), and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">zohalis ca</i>
(“heaven of Saturn”). The sphere
of the 31 stars is labeled <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">damt’vicebuli
ca</i> (“fixed heaven”). The next
sphere is labeled <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">meore damdzvreli</i>
(“second movable”), and the outermost is labeled <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p’irveli damdzvreli</i> (“first movable”). Finally, the four labels
appearing in the four corners of the diagram comprise a sentence, beginning in
the northeast quadrant and reading clockwise, ending in the northwest
quadrant. This sentence reads as
follows: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chelum . . . emp’ireum . . . romel ars . . . samotxe</i> (“empyrean
heaven, which is Paradise”).
Notice how the spelling of the Latin word coelum reveals an underlying
Italianate pronunciation—this is an important clue! It reveals that the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> was not only consulting an Italian source, but
was in actual contact with Italian speakers.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
The creator
of this diagram seems to be inviting us to begin at the midheaven, counting the
houses clockwise—the reverse of usual astrological practice, which counts them
counterclockwise, beginning from the ascendant. In this way, the third (northeast) quadrant becomes the
first; the second (southeast) remains the second, the first (southwest)
quadrant becomes the third, and the fourth (northwest) remains the fourth. It is very interesting that the label
in that corner reads simply <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">samotxe</i>
(“paradise”). This contrasts with
the western convention, by which the fourth quadrant has a somewhat sinister
reputation.<span style="font-family: Geneva; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img alt="74" height="446" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image046.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_14" width="487" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Christopher Cattan, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Geomancie of Maister Christopher Cattan,
Gentleman</i>, London, 1591. “From the continents of Earth through the planets
to the Firmament of Stars and to the Crystaline and First Moveable heaven to
the Band of the Blessed Elect.”<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
For comparison, I have included here a sixteenth-century English
cosmogram which appears in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Geomancie
of Maister Christopher Cattan, Gentleman</i> (1591). Here, the earth is depicted with continents and is labeled
“EAR”. The spheres of the seven
planets are both numbered and labeled, while in the lower hemisphere, the
planetary glyphs are entered as well—but incorrectly, with the Sun glyph omitted
from the series and an eight-pointed star inserted in the sphere after that of
Saturn! The sphere of the fixed
stars is marked off into the twelve signs of the zodiac, this time with the
first degree of Aries at mid-heaven, and the first degree of Cancer on the
ascendant. The glyph for each sign
is preceded by three eight-pointed stars, except in the case of Capricorn and
Aquarius (the signs ruled by Saturn and missing from the Voynich manuscript),
where the stars follow the glyph; and in the case of Gemini, where the stars
have been omitted entirely to make room for the word “FIRMA-MENT”. There are thus 34 stars in the diagram,
the same as there would be in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> if the labels had been omitted. The two outer spheres are labeled “CRISTALINE HEAVEN” and
“THE FIRST MOVEABLE”, while the circumference, just as in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, bears a four-part sentence, beginning in the
northwest quadrant and reading clockwise:
“THE IMPERIAL HEAVEN . . . THE HABITACLE OF GOD . . . AND OF ALL HIS <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
. . . BLESSED
ELECTE.”<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">5.
Marginal drawings of the Sun, Venus, and Mercury (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">37r</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img alt="36v-37r" height="443" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image048.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_15" width="246" /> <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 37r (margin)<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Description</u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Here,
greatly magnified, are the representations of the Sun, Venus, and Mercury,
which appear in the margin of page 37 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">recto</i>. The Sun is beautifully drawn, its face
surrounded by 20 flames and 20 rays.
These, as well as the circle of the face, are drawn in red ink. The features of the Sun’s face, as well
as the simple glyphs of Venus and Mercury, are drawn in black ink.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Interpretation<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Probably
these drawings simply coincide with references to the Sun, Venus, and Mercury
in the text. I can think of no
particular significance for the 20 flames and 20 rays. Taken as a group, the Sun and the two
inner planets can form exactly 360 different configurations: the Sun can appear in any of the 12
signs of the zodiac, and can be either above or below the horizon (the
definition of day and night); Mercury can occupy the same sign as the Sun, or
the sign preceding or following; while Venus can occupy the same sign as the Sun,
either of the two signs preceding it, or either of the two signs following
it. Thus, 12 x 2 x 3 x 5 = 360
configurations. But why does the
Sun have 20 rays?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Insights provided by the Georgian text</u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
These
marginal drawings are keyed to a sentence in the middle of the paragraph
opposite, which begins with these words in red ink: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mze zohara da ot’aridi
eseni</i> . . . (“the sun, Venus, and Mercury—these . . .”). What follows appears to be a discussion
of the motions of the two inner planets in relation to the sun.</div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">6. Diagrams of the zodiacal aspects (pages
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">46r-47v</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img alt="46r" height="106" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image050.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_16" width="179" /> <img height="53" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image052.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_17" width="241" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 46r <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 135<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img alt="46v-47r" height="166" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image054.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_18" width="232" /> <img height="165" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image056.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_19" width="169" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 46v <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 139<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img alt="46v-47r" height="151" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image058.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_20" width="160" /> <img height="145" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image060.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_21" width="192" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 47r <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 140<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img alt="46v-47r" height="177" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image062.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_22" width="161" /> <img height="181" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image064.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_23" width="179" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 47r <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 141<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="168" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image066.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_15" width="196" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img alt="47v-48r" height="170" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image068.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_24" width="196" /> <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 47v <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 141<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="154" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image070.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_16" width="167" /><img alt="47v-48r" height="153" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image072.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_25" width="180" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 47v <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 142<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">a.
Diagram illustrating planetary rulerships (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">46r</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Description and
interpretation<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This
is a very elegant little drawing!
I remember being very impressed with it when I first saw it, since I had
never seen the material laid out in quite this way. The 12 signs of the zodiac are written clockwise around the
central oval, in such a way that Cancer and Leo appear at the top, and Aquarius
and Capricorn at the bottom. In
this way, the planetary rulership of the signs can be neatly represented. The center of the oval is divided by
five horizontal lines, creating six bands. The top band corresponds to Cancer and Leo, and since these
signs are ruled by the two luminaries, it is divided by a vertical line, with
the Moon (ruling Cancer) on the left, and the Sun (ruling Leo) on the
right. Notice that in this case
the Moon is portrayed as a crescent, its face drawn in profile—it appears more
usually in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> as a
full moon with its whole face visible.
The second band connects the signs Gemini and Virgo; the glyph of
Mercury, which rules both signs, is drawn in the center. Similarly, Taurus and Libra, with their
ruler, Venus, comprise the third band from the top. The fourth band comprises Aries and Scorpio, ruled by
Mars. Notice that here (and
consistently throughout <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>), instead of writing the Scorpio glyph, the writer has drawn a
naturalistic representation of a scorpion. The fifth band connects the signs of Pisces and Sagittarius
with their ruler, Jupiter.
Finally, the sixth and bottom band, like the first, connects two
contiguous sings, Aquarius and Capricorn, and these are ruled by Saturn. The elegance of this drawing consists
in the way it places the signs ruled by the luminaries at the apex of the
chart, with their opposites, ruled by Saturn, at the bottom. This is a compelling visual
representation, and a useful aid to memory.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Comparison to Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Beltrano presents the same material in tabular form, in three
rows. The top row comprises the
glyphs of the Sun, the Moon, Saturn, Jupiter, Mars, Venus, and Mercury. The second row lists the signs of the
zodiac ruled by each planet, with the diurnal rulership first, followed by the
nocturnal rulership (as indicated by the letters “d.” and “n.” in the third
row—a feature which <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>
omits). Ludicrously, two mistakes
appear in the second row: the
glyph for Jupiter has been repeated under Jupiter, where Pisces should appear;
and the glyph for Libra has been repeated under Mercury, where Virgo should appear. Assuming that these errors characterized
the version of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>
he was using, the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> had some understanding of his subject, since he has made the
necessary corrections!<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">b.
Diagram illustrating the major aspects (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">46v</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Description and
interpretation<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
12 signs of the zodiac are drawn clockwise around the outer band, with
Capricorn to the left and Aries at the top. Lines connecting the signs represent the various aspects
they form among themselves. Not
all possible aspect relationships are indicated, however—the chart appears to
be oriented to Aries (at the apex), and that is the only sign for which all
aspects are indicated; lines to Aquarius and Gemini indicate the sextile (60º)
aspect; lines to Capricorn and Cancer indicate the square (90º) aspect; lines
to Sagittarius and Leo indicate the trine (120º) aspect; a line to Libra (at
the nadir of the chart) indicates the opposition (180º). The signs of Pisces, Taurus, Scorpio,
and Virgo are not connected by lines to anything else, presumably because they
form no aspects to Aries. However,
the Aries aspects are extended to show their geometric form—thus, sextiles are
drawn from Aquarius to Sagittarius and from Gemini to Leo, and again from
Sagittarius to Libra and from Leo to Libra, to create a hexagon; squares are
drawn from Capricorn to Libra, and from Cancer to Libra, to create a square;
and a trine is drawn from Sagittarius to Leo, to complete a triangle. The two circles which appear along the
line from Aries to Libra are presumably the astrological symbol for
opposition. The sextile from Aries
to Gemini is labeled with the Georgian letter <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ani</i> (A), the square from Aries to Cancer with the Georgian letter <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bani</i> (B), the trine from Aries to Leo
with the Georgian letter <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chini</i> (CH),
and the opposition between Aries and Libra with the Georgian letter <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">doni</i> (D)—presumably these are keyed to
their accompanying explanations in the text. It is very interesting that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chini</i> has been used instead of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">gani</i>
(the third letter of the Georgian alphabet)—this clearly points to western
European influence, and specifically to the input of a living Italian speaker,
just like the spelling of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chelum</i> (for
“coelum”) which is found on <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">36v</i>. For no obvious reason, two other
aspects have been indicated as well:
a trine from Aquarius to Gemini, and an opposition between Capricorn and
Cancer.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Comparison to
Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i><o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
corresponding diagram in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i> shows some very interesting differences. Most importantly, the signs are drawn counterclockwise (the
more usual way of representing them), and the zodiac is oriented differently,
with Aquarius at the apex and Taurus on the ascendant (left side). The same aspect lines appear as in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, but centered on
Aquarius, not on Aries. The only
exception is the trine from Aquarius to Gemini (would be Aries to Sagittarius
in this case), which does not appear.
Sextiles are labeled with an asterisk and the letter A, squares with a
square and the letter B, and trines with a triangle and the letter C. The oppositions are labeled with a
curious figure like a stubby cross at the center of the chart, but with no
letter. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Insights provided
by the Georgian text<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
four letters on the chart are indeed keyed to the text below, where the
following explanation appears<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">: a meekvse k’utxi b meotxe k’utxi ch
mesame k’utxi d p’irdap’iri k’utxi </i>(“A sixth aspect, B fourth aspect, C
third aspect, D opposite aspect”).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">c.
Diagram illustrating the sextile aspects (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">47r</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Description and
interpretation<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This
is a chart illustrating the sextile (60º) aspects among the signs of the
zodiac. Interestingly enough, the
orientation of this chart corresponds to that of the aspect chart in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> (p. 139), which we
just discussed—the sings are drawn counterclockwise this time, with Taurus on
the ascendant (left) and Aquarius at midheaven (top). Lines connecting the signs illustrate every possible sextile
aspect (12 in all). There is a
horizontal line near the left center of the diagram, opposite the sign of
Taurus. Above and below this line
appear some characters which are not Georgian letters—above the line is a
left-curving vertical line and something like an English lower-case N; below
the line is a horizontal arc, like a smiling mouth. I don’t know what these mean.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Comparison to
Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo<o:p></o:p></i></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As
before, Beltrano’s diagram (p. 140) contains some important differences. The zodiac is again oriented
differently, with the signs written counterclockwise, but this time with Cancer
on the ascendant (left) and Aries at midheaven (top of the chart). This matches the orientation of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> 46v, except that
there the signs are written clockwise.
As in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> 47r,
all 12 sextile aspects are indicated by lines connecting the signs; and a
vertical line appears in the top center of the circle, opposite the sign of
Aries (as compared to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
where it appears opposite Taurus, on the ascendant). To the left and right of this vertical line are printed the
letters SEN and DES, obviously intended as abbreviations for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sinistro</i> (“left”) and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">destro</i> (“right”). This refers to the astrological
distinction between sinister aspects (those formed in a counterclockwise
direction, following the order of the signs) and dexter (clockwise, against the
order of the signs) aspects. The
Georgian abbreviations on <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">47r</i>,
therefore, must indicate “right” and “left.”<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">d.
Diagram illustrating the square aspects (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">47r</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Description and
interpretation<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This
is a chart illustrating all possible square (90º) aspects among the signs. The signs are drawn in a
counterclockwise direction around the outer band, with Cancer on the ascendant
(left) and Aries at the midheaven (top)—the same arrangement found in
Beltrano’s chart of sextiles (p. 140), which we just examined. Lines connecting the signs illustrate
all possible square aspects (12 in all).
Within the central circle appear the Georgian words <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">marjvena</i> (“right”) and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">marcxena</i>
(“left”). To read these, the page
must be rotated and viewed from the left.
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></u>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Comparison to
Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i><o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The corresponding diagram in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i> (p. 141) contains few surprises. Its orientation (counterclockwise, Cancer on the ascendant,
Aries at midheaven) is the same as that of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> chart.
It is nearly identical to the previous chart of sextiles (p. 140), with
SEN (sinistro) and DES (destro) indicated as before.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">e.
Diagram illustrating the trine aspects (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">47v</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Description and
interpretation<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
This is a chart of all possible trine (120º) aspects. Its orientation (clockwise, Cancer on
the ascendant, Aries at midheaven) is exactly the same as that of the preceding
chart, and as before, the words <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">marjvena</i>
and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">marcxena</i> (“left” and “right”)
have been written in the center of the chart so that the page must be rotated
to the left in order to read them.
Lines connecting the signs illustrate all possible trine aspects (12 in
all).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Comparison to
Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i><o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Beltrano’s
chart of trines (p. 141) corresponds exactly to the Georgian chart, displaying
the same orientation of the zodiacal signs, and has a vertical line in the
center separating the abbreviations DES and SEN, but strangely, these have now
been transposed—DES appearing to the left of the line, and SEN to the right of
it.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">f.
Diagram illustrating the zodiacal oppositions (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">47v</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Description and
interpretation<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This
is a chart of all possible zodiacal oppositions (180º aspects). Its orientation (counterclockwise,
Cancer on the ascendant, Aries at midheaven) matches that of the two preceding
charts. Six lines, illustrating
all the possible oppositions, run from each sign to the one opposite. There are no labels or writing. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Comparison to
Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i><o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Beltrano’s
chart of oppositions is different in that although the signs are written
clockwise, it has Aries on the ascendant (left side) and Capricorn at the
midheaven (top of the chart). The
six oppositions are indicated by lines connecting the signs. However, the lines converge on a large
central dot, like the hub of a wheel, which divides the six lines into 12
“spokes.” As in the Georgian
chart, there are no labels or writing.<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Summary of chart
orientations for the aspect diagrams<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</span></u></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u>Almanacco Perpetuo</u></i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> direction ASC M.C. direction ASC M.C.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">rulership clockwise Taurus Leo ---- ---- ----<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">major
aspects clockwise Capr. Aries countercl. Taurus Aquarius<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">sextiles countercl. Taurus
Aquarius countercl. Cancer Aries<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">squares countercl. Cancer Aries countercl. Cancer
Aries<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">trines countercl. Cancer Aries countercl. Cancer
Aries<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">oppositions countercl. Cancer
Aries countercl. Aries Capricorn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
These
changes in orientation are not easy to explain. There may well be something hidden here, but it is equally
possible that the differences are simply a by-product of the process of copying
the illustrations from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i>. Since the diagrams
are so similar in form, it is easy to see (for example) how the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> could have used the
orientation of the zodiac from Beltrano’s chart of major aspects (p. 139) for
the following chart of sextiles, or the orientation from Beltrano’s chart of
trines (p. 141) for the following chart of oppositions. The highly unusual clockwise writing of
the signs (46v and 47r) is much harder to explain, however.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> 7. First page of
a Table of Houses (page <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">48v</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<img alt="48v-49r" height="555" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image074.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_26" width="362" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 48v<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<img align="left" height="536" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image076.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_19" width="360" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo, </i>p. 145<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Description and
interpretation<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
This is the beginning of a section that occupies several pages in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>. A table of houses for the appropriate
latitude is an essential tool for any practical astrologer, and the owner of
this book must have consulted it frequently.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The tables are organized into 12 sections, corresponding to the signs
of the zodiac. The present page
comprises the beginning of the sections for Aries (left side of the page) and
Taurus (right side of the page).
The four-line description at the top of the page reads as follows: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">zanduk’i
sadgomebisa martabaebisa da zemouri cis k’amarasi romelsa hkvian munajiburad
p’olo da amas akes martaba ocda cxramet’i vinc amas sibrdznit iangarishebs
moixmarebs sakartvelosak’en k’axetisk’en imeretisk’en odishisk’en azrumisk’en
da q’izilbashisak’en</i>. [“table of houses, of ascendants, and of midheavens,
which are degrees for astrological pole 39; whoever reckons them wisely may use
them for Kartli, Kakheti, Imereti, Odessa, Erzurum and Qizilbashi”]. This is an important passage in that it
adds to the evidence that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> originated in western Georgia—the places listed suggest an
orientation toward the Black Sea, which would make little sense if the
manuscript originated in eastern Georgia.
I cannot identify “Qizilbashi,” however. These sentences run straight through the vertical line which
divides the page in half—probably this line had already been ruled onto the
page before the text was added.
Below this, in red ink, descriptions have been placed at the head of each
register; the one on the left reads:
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mze erk’emelis burjshi
asch’t’ich’ani</i> (“sun in constellation of Aries X [the Georgian word appears
to be nonsense]”), while the one on the right reads: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mze dek’eulis burjshi
martaba</i> (“sun in constellation of Taurus degree”). The next row lists the houses for
Aries: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sadgomi</i> (“house”), followed by the numbers 10, 1 [this is an
error—should read “11”], 12, 1, 2, 3; and again for Taurus: 10, 11, 12, 1, 2, 3 (as is usual in a
table of houses, houses 4-9 are omitted because these are always simply the
opposites of the six houses already given. The next row down begins with a column marked <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> (for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">saati</i>, “hour”), and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">N</i>
(for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nac’ili</i>, “minute”), and then
indicates the zodiacal sign in which each of the six houses will begin. All this is repeated on the right for
Taurus. The remaining rows are
filled with numbers—of hours and minutes under the first column (headed <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">S</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">N</i>), and of zodiacal degrees under the remaining columns (headed
with signs of the zodiac). In one
case (last column on the right, headed with Virgo, fourth entry from the top),
the sign for Libra appears instead of a number; this indicates a position of
“zero Libra,” falling between 30 Virgo and 1 Libra—so that all the numbers
below this in the column refer to degrees in Libra, not Virgo.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Comparison to
Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i><o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
corresponding tables are found on pages 145-150 of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>.
The heading reads “Tavole delle Case li Gradi nel Polo 39 e servono per
il Regno di Napoli, Roma, Sicilia” (“tables of houses—the degrees at pole
39—and they serve for the Kingdom of Naples, Rome, Sicily”). The “pole” of a place, in astrological
parlance, is equivalent to its geographic latitude. In practice, the results obtained would not be very precise,
since the same tables are to be employed alike for Rome (41º54N), Naples
(40º50N), and Palermo (38º07N).
However, this is consistent with the mathematics associated with the
Ptolemaic climes. The remarkable
thing is that the author of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>
has copied these same tables without modification for use at locations still
farther north: Tbilisi (41º43N),
Telavi (41ª55N), Kutaisi (42º15N), Odessa (46º28N), and Erzurum (39º54N). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Beltrano’s
tables contain several obvious errors.
On the present page 145, the row beginning “Case” is marked “10, 11, 12,
1, 10 [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sic</i>], 3”. In the Aries column for the 11<sup>th</sup>
house, about halfway down, we read “20, 2, 2, 23”—obviously the second digit
has been left out, and the series should probably read “20, 21, 22, 23.” The writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> has corrected these errors, but has perpetrated
new ones of his own by miscopying the Italian source. There are no fewer than 13 numerical errors on this page
alone, most of them off by just one degree, though in one case “29” has been
written in error for “20.” It is
just possible that these changes reflect an attempt to correct the tables for a
more northerly latitude. At the
bottom page 145, Beltrano provides the following explanatory note: “Queste Tavole sono dell’ore dopo mezzo giorno per collocare li
Dodeci Segni nella Celeste Figura” (“These are tables of hours after mid-day,
to compute the 12 signs of the celestial chart”). A Georgian translation of this is found at the bottom of
49r. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Discussion<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A
careful examination of these tables establishes that they follow the
Regiomontanus system of house division, which was in general use by European
astrologers at this period. This
system was soon to be superseded by the Placidean system, which was being
developed at this time. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On
pages 154-155 of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>
are found a set of instructions for erecting a horoscope using these
tables. The procedure involves
finding the sum of three values: the local time in hours and minutes after
noon; the hours and minutes (first column) which correspond to the Sun’s
current zodiacal position (in the column headed “10”); and the hours and
minutes of sidereal time associated with the Sun’s current position, to be
taken from the ephemeris of Argolus.
This sum is the sidereal time.
To erect a chart, it is necessary to use these tables in conjunction
with an ephemeris which gives the current planetary positions.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In
the example given by Beltrano, the time given is 2:48 P.M.; the hours and
minutes for the Sun’s zodiacal position are 6 hours, 0 minutes (by definition,
since this is the chart of a cardinal ingress); and the universal time from the
ephemeris is 7 hours, 30 minutes.
The sum of these three values is 16h 18m. The next step is to find this sum (the sidereal time)
wherever it falls in the column marked H. M. In this case, it corresponds closely to 16h 16m, which
appears in the table of houses on page 149. The associated house cusps are as follows:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="font-size: 10pt;">H.M. 10 11 12 1 2 3<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">16:16 6Sag 25Sag 17Cap 17Aqu 7Ari 13Tau<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The remaining six house cusps are simply
the opposite points to these:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<u><span style="font-size: 10pt;">4 5 6 7 8 9<o:p></o:p></span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">6Gem 25Gem 17Can 17Leo 7Lib 13Sco<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Once these house
cusps have been entered on the chart, all that remains is to add the positions
of the seven planets and the lunar nodes, which are taken directly from the
ephemeris. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Well and good. The
remarkable thing is that Beltrano’s instructions are so garbled that it would
probably be impossible for a learner to obtain any meaningful results by following
them. Beltrano instructs the
practitioner to use the time after noon; in fact the time 2:48 is correct, but
actually refers to the hours and minutes <u>before midnight</u> (since local
time is 10:12 PM). In addition,
Beltrano’s listing of the house cusps associated with the sidereal time of 16h
16m does not correspond to the values actually found in his table. He gives 6Sag, 24Sag, 14Cap, 17Aqu,
17Ari, 15Tau. This is highly
confusing, since the table lists them as 6Sag, 25Sag, 17Cap, 17Aqu, 7Ari,
13Tau. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
A person trained in astrology would be able to wade through this morass
of errors, making the necessary adjustments, but an untrained person would
probably have to give up without accomplishing anything. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Could it be that these errors are intentional? If so, they may constitute a virtual
“lock” on the book, deliberately obscuring its meaning from the
uninitiated—providing instructions which cannot be followed without the prior
knowledge necessary to sort out the errors.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">8.
Horoscope of a Summer Ingress (pages 58v-59r)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<img align="left" alt="59r" height="228" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image078.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_21" width="246" /><img align="left" alt="59r" height="228" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image080.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_20" width="262" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 58v <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 59r<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="66" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image082.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_22" width="232" /><img align="left" height="232" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image084.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_23" width="246" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 155 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 156<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Description and
interpretation<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On 58v, the cusps of
the 12 houses for a specific horoscope have been listed:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>house</u> <u>sign</u> <u>degree<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
10 Sagittarius 6<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
11 Sagittarius 24<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
12 Capricorn 14<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1 Aquarius 17º36’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2 Aries 7<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3 Taurus 14<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
4 Gemini 6<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
5 Gemini 24<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
6 Cancer 14<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
7 Leo 17º36’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
8 Libra 7<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
9 Scorpio 14<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
heading reads: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sadgomebisa da burjebis angarishi</i>
(“computation of houses and constellations”). As is customary, the ascendant (first house) is indicated
more precisely, in degrees and minutes, and the same has been done with the
degree opposite (seventh
house). The signs of Pisces and
Virgo are “intercepted” (completely contained within the first and seventh
houses, respectively), something which frequently occurs with some of the more
common systems of house division.
It is interesting to note that the writer made a mistake in transcribing
this table—he failed to write Gemini a second time, so that the remaining four
signs in the column were assigned to the wrong houses. After erasing the entire column (still
dimly visible), he rewrote it (correctly) slightly to the right.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This
set of house-cusps, along with planetary positions, has been used to erect the
horoscope on 59r, from which the following values can be extracted (I have
entered the planets next to the houses they occupy):<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>houses</u> <u>planets<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I 17
Aquarius 36 north
node 4
Pisces 55<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
II 7
Aries [?] 11
Aries 07<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
III 14
Taurus Venus 20
Taurus 23<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Mars 28
Taurus 11<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
IV 6
Gemini<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
V 24
Gemini Mercury 27
Gemini 14<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sun 0
Cancer 00<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
VI 14
Cancer Jupiter 4
Leo 56<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
VII 17
Leo 03 [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sic</i>] Moon 3
300 Virgo 46 [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sic</i>]<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
south
node 4
Virgo 55<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
VIII 7
Libra<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
IX 14
Scorpio<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
X 6
Sagittarius<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
XI 24
Sagittarius Saturn 29
Sagittarius 34<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
XII 14
Capricorn<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
central inscription reads as follows:
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">saxe ese tu mze rogor sheva
burjebshi KK’SA T’NIV mariambisatve dghe IA shami I nac’ili IE<sup>y</sup> cis zemuri k’amara MA</i> (“this is the
chart for when the sun will enter the constellations, [year 366], month of
August, day 11, hour 10, minute 18, midheaven 41”).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This
is obviously the chart of a Summer Ingress (the moment when the Sun enters
Cancer, signifying the beginning of summer), with the position of the Sun given
as <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
0 Cancer 00. The erection of such charts is an
important feature of Mundane Astrology (the astrology typical of almanacs and
other general prognostications pertaining to the weather and political events).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
There
are a number of strange and inexplicable things here. It is very hard to understand why the cusp of the seventh house
is given as 17 Leo 03, when it is entered correctly on table on the facing page
as 17 Leo 36. Also, since this is
clearly the chart of a summer ingress (which would occur around June 21<sup>st</sup>),
the reference date of August 11<sup>th</sup> makes no sense at all. I am also unable to make sense of the
lunar position, which is given as G—T’—MV (3—300—46). I assume it is supposed to be 3 Virgo 46, but don’t know
what to make of the intervening number 300. I cannot understand the meaning of the number 41 associated
with the midheaven, either.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
most interesting feature of this chart, however, is the unidentified object
which appears in the second house at 11 Aries 07. It is drawn as a black dot surrounded by seven smaller dots. It could represent one of the fixed stars,
or a comet, or possibly the supernova of 1604. It could also represent one of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">partes arabicae</i> (invisible points or “lots” derived from other
zodiacal positions by addition or subtraction), or it could represent some
hypothetical planet (highly unlikely unless there is some remarkable survival
here of a pre-Islamic Persian practice). I will have to do further research on
this!<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
My
best guess at this point is that this strange little symbol is intended to
represent the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pars Fortunae</i> (“part of
fortune”). The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pars Fortunae</i> is the best-known of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">partes arabicae</i>, and is derived by
finding the zodiacal distance between the Sun and Moon and adding that to the
Ascendant. The position actually
given for our mysterious object is 11º07, and since this position is written
parallel to that of the cusp of the second house (7 Aries), I have assumed that
this means 11 Aries 07; however, both 11 Aries 07 and 11 Taurus 07 fall within
the second house in this case (the third house does not begin until 14 Taurus),
so it is possible that the real value is 11 Taurus 07. Although we don’t know the actual lunar
position the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> was using, we do know that the Ascendant was 17 Aquarius 36 and
the Sun was at 0 Cancer 00—so if this object really is the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pars Fortunae</i>, we can easily compute the lunar position the writer
was using—23 Virgo 31.
Unfortunately, this does not accord in any way with what is written next
to the Moon on the chart.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<u><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></u>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Comparison to
Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i><o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Now,
let’s compare this horoscope to the parallel passage in Beltrano. On page 155 of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> appears a set of house cusps which are obviously
the basis of those listed above:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
10 6
Sagittarius 4 6
Gemini<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
11 6
Sagittarius [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sic</i>] 5 24
Gemini<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
12 54
Capricorn [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sic</i>] 6 14
Cancer<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1 14
Scorpio 36 [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sic</i>] 7 17
Leo 36<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2 7
Aries 8 7
Libra<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3 14
Taurus 9 14
Aquarius [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sic</i>]<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The ineptitude
encompassed in this single small table is simply amazing. Nevertheless, with the errors
corrected, it is obviously the same horoscope that appears in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
On
page 156, there is yet another surprise:
a blank horoscope.
Presumably, the printer left this chart to be filled in by hand, but
this was never done. It would be
very interesting to examine this page in other copies and other editions of
Beltrano’s almanac.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Even
without the original version of the horoscope, it should be relatively easy to
determine the date for which the horoscope in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> was erected. I decided to try this on Saturday, 26 April 2008, after
wasting most of the afternoon on other matters. I asked my colleague, David Rath, to note the time, so that
I could demonstrate how quickly this could done. Using the software and ephemerides available at the
Astrodienst website, I was able to determine the date in just 25 minutes—this
despite the fact that (unsurprisingly) the planetary positions given in the
horoscope are far from exact. The
date I arrived at was 21 June 1635, and this was subsequently confirmed when I
found that same date given on page 154 of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>. My
ability to find this date so quickly demonstrates the uniqueness of any given
moment in time and the horoscope associated with it—a simple collocation of
just four planets in their respective zodiacal signs will create a
configuration unlikely to be duplicated at any other date in all of human
history!<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
corrected horoscope for the Summer Ingress of 1635 (at Tbilisi) appears below
(as generated by the Astrodienst software). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
This is truly a remarkable chart, since the Sun and Saturn are in
opposition and both are angular (posited in the fourth and tenth houses,
respectively), and the Moon is very nearly so (within four degrees of the cusp
of the seventh house). In mundane
astrology, such a chart would be regarded as presaging extremely significant
political events for the year to come.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
From this chart, it becomes evident that the intended position of Mars
in the horoscope was 28 Gemini 11, not 28 Taurus 11 (as I had mistakenly
concluded based on where Mars was entered in the chart); moreover, due to a
clerical error, this should be corrected to 18 Gemini 11.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img alt="astro_2gw_01_saetlo" height="638" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image086.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_27" width="434" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
At
the time I erected this chart, I did not know that it was based on Beltrano’s
data (which assumed a location in southern Italy, not in the Caucasus), and I
used the Placidean house cusps as is my custom. A comparable chart for Naples on the same date, using the
Regiomontanus system of house division, appears below:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img height="566" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image088.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_28" width="385" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Note that the chart of the ingress erected for Naples is much less
dramatic: although the planets
retain their configuration relative to each other (Sun and Saturn in partile
opposition, within 30 minutes of arc), the mundane houses have shifted so that
they are no longer angular.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
It now becomes possible to tabulate the horoscopic data given in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> (and by Beltrano)
against the actual positions for 21 June 1635 (computer-generated, and accurate
to within a few seconds of arc):<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>houses</u> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u>Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</u></i> <u>actual
positions</u> <u>difference<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I 17
Aquarius 36 17
Aquarius 38 0º02’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
II 7
Aries 6
Aries 31 0º29’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
III 14
Taurus 13
Taurus 36 0º24’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
IV 6
Gemini 5
Gemini 56 0º04’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
V 24
Gemini 23
Gemini 50 0º10’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
VI 14
Cancer 14
Cancer 32 0º32’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
VII 17
Leo 36 17
Leo 38 0º02’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
VIII 7
Libra 6
Libra 31 0º29’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
IX 14
Scorpio 13
Scorpio 36 0º24’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
X 6
Sagittarius 5
Sagittarius 56 0º04’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
XI 24
Sagittarius 23
Sagittarius 50 0º10’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
XII 14
Capricorn 14
Capricorn 32 0º32’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>planets</u> <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sun 0
Cancer 00 0
Cancer 00 [none]<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Moon 23
Virgo 31 [?] 23
Virgo 41 0º10’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Mercury 27
Gemini 14 23
Gemini 57 3º17’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Venus 20
Taurus 23 20
Taurus 07 0º16’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Mars 18
Gemini 11 [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">corrected</i>] 18
Gemini 10 0º01’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Jupiter 4
Leo 56 5
Leo 01 0º05’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Saturn 29
Sagittarius 34 29
Sagittarius 30 0º04’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
north node 4
Pisces 55 5
Pisces 25 0º30’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
south node 4
Virgo 55 5
Virgo 25 0º30’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
pars fort. [?] 11
Taurus 07 11
Taurus 18 0º11’<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The accuracy of this horoscope is very impressive, with most positions
correct to within less than 30 minutes of arc. The only exception is Mercury, which has been placed more
than 3º ahead of its true position.
This is not surprising, however—Mercury positions are notoriously
difficult to determine, and old astronomical texts frequently err in their
positions for Mercury by 10º or more.
The accuracy of horoscopic planetary positions is a function of the
ephemeris used by the practitioner; in this case, Argolus was used. As the results demonstrate, planetary
positions derived from the Argolus ephemeris approach modern standards of accuracy. Although the Mercury position requires
significant correction, its computation by Argolus still represents a great
improvement over earlier ephemerides.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
From what Beltrano says about it, this horoscope for 21 June 1635 is
simply presented as an example of how to erect a chart. The corresponding passage in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> (57v-58r) appears on
pages unavailable to me. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
So far, I have been unable to find any astrological discussion of this
specific cardinal ingress. It is
inevitable, however, that such an analysis was done, and undoubtedly a study of
the numerous astrological almanacs published during the 17<sup>th</sup> century
would unearth more than one version of it. Even the chart erected for Naples has some remarkable
features, and I can’t help wondering whether the enigmatic and ingenious
Beltrano had some secret purpose in presenting this particular horoscope!<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Finally, the chart which appears on page 59r of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> yields some additional (albeit inconclusive)
evidence bearing on the problem of the mysterious system of dates used
throughout the manuscript. The
year for this chart is designated as T’NIV, a numerical expression which would
generally be read as 366 (300+50+10+6).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The actual year of this summer ingress (1635) has already been
conclusively established, not only by identifying the historical planetary
positions but also from the explicit statement found on p. 154 of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>. This would imply
that T’NIV (366) is equivalent to 1635, with a calendrical era beginning in
1269. Unfortunately, this does not
harmonize with the equivalencies implied by the eclipse series (31r-35r), where
T’M (340) was found to correspond to the eclipses of 1652, with an era
beginning in 1312. Obviously
something is wrong here. If the
1312 era is correct, then the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> is incorrectly assigning the summer ingress chart to the year 1678—a date for which the actual
chart does not even superficially resemble the present one!<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">9.
The Perpetual Almanac (pages <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">60v-74r</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This
section forms the core of Beltrano’s almanac (pp. 159-203), and is presumably a
perpetuation of the original almanac of Rutilio Benincaso. It presents the coming years in a
28-year cycle—so that the almanac can be perpetually updated; hence the title <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i>. I do not understand the basis of this
28-year cycle, and considerable research has failed to uncover its
principle. It appears to have
something to do with the 28-year “Dionysian cycle,” by which (for example) if
July 4th falls on a Friday this year (2008), it will again fall on a Friday in
2036, 28 years from now. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The layout of the section for each year in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i> follows the same
pattern. Across the top are listed
four years (28 years apart), to any of which the prognostications which follow
may be applied. In most cases this
list is accompanied by a pictorial representation of one of the seven planets,
which usually includes the signs ruled by that planet. After this follows a
prognostication for the year, pertaining to the weather, the harvest, wars,
pestilences, and so on. These
prognostications always begin with the same formula: “Il Sole entrando al primo grado d’Ariete a’ 21 di Marzo
dominatore [or ‘signore’] dell’Anno sar<span style="color: #000966;">à</span> il
Pianeta di [PLANET], con il segno di [SIGN], casa di [PLANET]” (“When the sun
enters the first degree of Aries on the 21st of March, the ruler of the year
will be the planet [X], with the sign of [Y], house of [Z]”). The apparent intention of this is to
indicate first, the planet which rules the rising sign; second, the sign in
which that planet is found; and third, the planet which rules that sign.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The text of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> is essentially a translation of these yearly
prognostications. In the Georgian
text, each section begins with a similar formula: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mze sheva erk’emelis c’inap’irvels
c’inap’irveli c’inc’k’alshi mart’is tertmet’s mashin ip’at’ronebs</i> [PLANET] [of SIGN] <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">burjshi
romel ars</i> [of PLANET] <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sadgomi</i> da [PLANET] <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">cis shuashi ikneba p’irvel
gamochenaze</i> (“the sun will
enter the first of Aries, in the first degree, on the eleventh [sic] of March,
then [X] will rule, in the constellation of [Y], which is the house of
[Z]”). It is very curious that the
writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>
consistently gives March 11th as the date of the equinox—another of this
manuscript’s many mysteries!<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Near the end of each section, the Italian text includes a short
agricultural prognostication beginning with the formula “Democrito dice che . .
.” In most cases, a translation of
this appears in the Georgian text, introduced with the phrase <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">demok’rit’e
it’q’vis</i> or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">demok’rit’e
pilasoposi it’q’vis</i>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In both of these texts, the planet pictured for each year is usually
the “ruler of the year,” but sometimes it is the planetary ruler of the sign
that planet occupies. I can
discover no rationale for why the authors have chosen one or the other.<o:p></o:p></div>
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In analyzing the 28-year cycle, my first assumption was that Beltrano
was simply using the planetary ruler of the day of the week on which the
equinox actually occurred, but the results for the years 1720-1747 did not
match the series given by Beltrano, and did not yield a 28-year cycle. I then tried an even simpler
approach—the planetary ruler of the day of the week on which March 21st
falls. This does yield a 28-year
cycle, but unfortunately the results do not match Beltrano’s series for
1720-1747. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
On page 155 of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, the following statement is found: “e sempre quello, che si ritrova nel primo angolo Orientale, sarà
dominatore dell’ Anno, e questo è quello, che ha più
forza de gl’ altri nel spuntar del Sole, come capo della Stagione, o il Pianeta
che averà più dignità” (“and always that [zodiacal sign] which is
found in the first ascending angle will be the lord of the year, and this is
that [sign] which has greater strength than the others at the sun’s rising [or
ingress, if <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">spuntar</i> may be construed in that sense], as the chief [planet] of the season,
or the planet which has greater dignity”). This clearly implies that the way to ascertain the planetary
“lord of the year” is to erect the chart for the Sun’s spring ingress into
Aries (on or about March 21st), and find the rising sign. If we take the chart on 59r of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> as an example,
the rising sign is Aquarius, making Saturn the ruler of the chart (since Saturn
rules the sign of Aquarius). The
rest of Beltrano’s statement is confusing, however: he refers to an alternate method of determining the ruler of
the chart, by finding the planet which has the greatest essential dignity (in
terms of its placement by sign, term, and triplicity) at the moment of sunrise
(or ingress, possibly). Beltrano’s
words imply that these methods are equivalent, but in fact the two approaches
will seldom yield the same result.
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The perpetual almanac section in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia </i>has been updated by gluing strips of paper
over the rows of dates, and writing new dates on these strips. In some cases, the strips have become
loose, and it is possible to read the original dates underneath. It turns out that for at least part of
the series, the numbers have been advanced by 84 years. Moreover, while the original text
(following the Italian source) listed four years in red ink above each picture,
the glued strips list <u>five</u> years (in black ink). All of this implies that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> was in use for
more than a century! <o:p></o:p></div>
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In mundane
astrology, the spring ingress of the Sun into the constellation of Aries was
regarded as the beginning of the astrological year, and the chart erected for
that moment was the cornerstone of all predictions for the year to come.
Hieronymus Cardanus writes of this in what I find to be one of the most
memorable passages in all of astrology:
“There are some things perfectly known, as the Circle of Ascension, some
in a competent measure, as the Revolution of the Sun; some may be known
although they yet are not, as the Revolution of the Superiors; some things fall
under knowledge, yet cannot be exactly known, as the precise ingress of the Sun
into the Equinoctial Point; some are neither known, nor can be known, as the
complete commixtures and distinct virtues of all the Stars.” (Lilly 1675:¶3).<o:p></o:p></div>
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My
discussion of the illustrations in this section will proceed as follows: first, I will describe each planetary
representation as it appears in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> (the obvious source of the Georgian
text). Then, I will examine how
the corresponding illustrations in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> compare to these. Finally, using a procedure based on that described by
Willett Kempton in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Folk Classification of Ceramics</i> (1981), I will try to discover how these
illustrations fit into the taxonomy of planetary representations, as they
appear in a variety of European, Islamic, and Indian sources. <o:p></o:p></div>
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To
construct this taxonomy, I have used the illustrations from Giordano Bruno’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ars
Memoriae</i> (1582) and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De
Imaginum Compositione</i> (1591)
[both sets available at the “Twilight Grotto” website (http://www.esotericarchives.com/gifs/gifs.htm#astrology)]; the planetary images included in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tarocchi
di Mantegna</i> (c1465) [from
Adam McLean, “An Hermetic Origin of the Tarot Cards?
A
Consideration of the Tarocchi of Mantegna” (1983) [available at http://www.levity.com/alchemy/mantegna.html]; Hans Sebald Beham’s series of woodcuts
illustrating the seven planets (1530/40) [available at Adam McLean’s “Alchemy
Website” (http://www.alchemywebsite.com/amcl
_astronomical _material.html)];
an anonymous set of woodcuts from Christopher Warnock’s “Renaissance Astrology”
website (http://www.renaissanceastrology.com/
planets.html); Islamic
representations from Eva Baer’s article “Representations of
‘Planet-Children’ in Turkish Manuscripts” (1968); a set of Indian planetary
representations from the Sanatan Society website (http://www.sanatansociety.org/vedic
_astrology_and_numerology/vedic_astrology_9_planets.htm); and a number of
miscellaneous planetary representations from various sources.</div>
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Unlike
the representations of the twelve signs of the zodiac, which pervade the
astrological literature of all periods, representations (personifications) of
the seven planets are seldom found.
Despite considerable research, I have only succeeded in compiling a
small sample; there are doubtless numerous variants which are not represented
here. With further work, I hope to
succeed in compiling a full taxonomy comparable to Kempton’s work, in which
every possible variant is classified and displayed.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Nevertheless,
despite the limited scope of the available material, this taxonomy has resulted
in a number of important discoveries.
For one thing, it is clear that the illustrations in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> (and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i>) owe nothing at all
to the Islamic or Indian traditions—they fit solidly within the western
tradition of planetary representations.
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
When I first looked through <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, I was struck by the fact that these
illustrations did not appear to reflect the dress or cultural conventions of
the Caucasus region; rather, the dress and demeanor of the figures resembled
the archaic courtly dress of western Europe, much as it is portrayed in a set of
playing cards.<o:p></o:p></div>
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This phenomenon
puzzled me greatly, but the reason for it became clear when I saw the
illustrations in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, from which the Georgian series was derived.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It
turns out that almost every detail found in these representations finds at
least one parallel in the set of western planetary representations which I have
assembled for comparison.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">a.
Representations of Jupiter</b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<img align="left" alt="60v-61r" height="230" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image090.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_25" width="362" /><o:p></o:p></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 60v <o:p></o:p></div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
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<img align="left" height="209" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image092.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_26" width="359" /><o:p></o:p></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 161<o:p></o:p></div>
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</span></i>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>: Jupiter is portrayed as a seated king,
bearded, wearing a five-pronged crown.
In his right hand, he holds three long objects clustered together which
look like leaves. In his left
hand, he holds a scepter. Just to
the right of the scepter’s tip, there is a nine-pointed star. Just to the right of the scepter’s
base, the Jupiter glyph appears.
At the bottom of the picture there are two circles, with two fish
(Pisces) in the circle on the left, and a centaur (Sagittarius) in the circle
on the right. Three labels
appear: CASA D GIOVE between the
circles, PISCE above the right circle, and SAGIT above the left circle.</div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromanti’a</i>
contains four parallel versions of this illustration:</div>
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60v: A seated
king, bearded, wearing a four-pronged crown. In his right hand, three unidentifiable objects, just as in
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>. In his left hand, a scepter, with a
seven-pointed star to the right of it.
The Jupiter glyph does not appear.
At bottom left is a circle containing the two fish (Pisces); at bottom
right is a centaur with a bow (Sagittarius, not in a circle). There are no labels.</div>
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<br /></div>
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63r: This
picture differs from 60v in several ways.
The king is clean-shaven.
The scepter looks more like a sword. The star has eight points. There are no zodiacal signs represented at the bottom of the
picture.</div>
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66v: Here, the
king is bearded. In his right
hand, instead of the three strange objects, he holds a large arrow or dart with
the feathers pointing upward, and the point concealed within his hand. At bottom left is a ram (Aries). At bottom right is a centaur, drawn as
if shooting an arrow but without a bow (Sagittarius). Neither of these small figures is surrounded by a circle.</div>
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<br /></div>
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72r: Like 66v,
the king holds a large arrow in his right hand, with the feathers upward and
the point downward. At bottom left
is a sea-goat (Capricorn). At
bottom right is a centaur shooting a bow (Sagittarius). Neither is surrounded by a circle.</div>
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<br /></div>
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76v: This
version follows 60v in every detail, with two exceptions: first, the sign of
Pisces is not surrounded by a circle; second, the Jupiter glyph appears on the
left, just above the centaur’s head.</div>
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<img align="left" alt="62v-63r" height="170" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image094.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_38" width="209" /><img align="left" alt="66v-67r" height="174" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image096.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_160" width="197" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
63r<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>, 66v</div>
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<img align="left" alt="76v" height="185" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image098.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_161" width="228" /><img alt="71v-72r" height="198" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image100.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_29" width="179" /></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
72r <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>, 76v<o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Taxonomy of Jupiter
representations<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<img alt="jup3" height="149" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image102.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_30" width="136" /> <img alt="jup4" height="142" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image104.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_31" width="209" /><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Giordano
Bruno, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ars Memoriae</i> (1582) Giordano
Bruno, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De Imaginum Compositione</i>
(1591)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<img align="left" alt="beham_jupiter_tmb" height="264" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image106.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_27" width="183" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img alt="manteg5" height="284" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image108.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_32" width="157" /></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Tarocchi di Mantegna</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (c1465) Hans
Sebald Beham (1530/40)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img alt="wodblokjup" height="223" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image110.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_33" width="178" /></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <img alt="jupiter_in_pisces_art" height="219" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image112.jpg" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_34" width="220" /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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woodblock print of
Jupiter (C. Warnock) Jupiter
(17<sup>th</sup> century manuscript)<o:p></o:p></div>
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<img align="left" alt="planet_jupiter" height="219" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image114.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_28" width="168" /><o:p></o:p></div>
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<img align="left" height="196" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image116.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_54" width="235" /><o:p></o:p></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Sayyid
Muhammad b. Amir Hasan Su’udi (1582) Indian
representation of Jupiter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Based on these data, it appears that Jupiter is generally portrayed as
a king, usually seated on a throne or in a chariot. In his right hand, he holds
a bunch of arrows (one, two, or three), or sometimes a bowl; and in his left, a
scepter. However, when Jupiter
holds only a scepter, it is always in his right hand.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Jupiter is associated with eagles or peacocks. The two signs he rules may appear in
two circles or wheels at the bottom of the picture: Pisces on the left and Sagittarius on the right (Beham,
Warnock, 17th century engraving); or Sagittarius on the left and Pisces on the
right (Bruno 1582, 1591). A star
appears at upper left, above his scepter (Bruno 1582) but covers his secrets in
Warnock’s engraving. The Jupiter
glyph appears at upper right (Bruno 1582), but floats just in front of the king
in Beham’s engraving.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The Islamic and Indian representations appear to be entirely unrelated
to the western ones and are probably irrelevant to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Thus, it appears that the representations of Jupiter in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i> and three of those
in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>
(60v, 63r, 76v) fit solidly into these conventions. Overall, the closest model is the image seen in Bruno’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ars
Memoriae</i> (1582). However, the other two representations
(66v and 72r) are extremely problematical because they have replaced Pisces
with other signs which are not ruled by Mars (Aries and Capricorn,
respectively). <o:p></o:p></div>
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This taxonomy makes it clear that the strange cluster of objects which
appear in the figure’s right hand are supposed to be arrows!<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">b.
Representations of the Sun</b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 61v</div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 166 (illustration duplicated on p. 178)</div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> portrays the sun as a seated king, wearing a
five-pronged crown. He holds
a scepter in his right hand, and he rests his right hand in his lap. To the left of the king’s head is a sun
with a face and rays; its face appears to be tilted to the left. To the right of the king’s head is a
star with seven points. Two
circles appear at the bottom of the picture. In the left circle is a lion (Leo), and in the right circle
is what appears to be a crescent moon, points upward, with the unilluminated
part of its disk shaded in. Two
labels appear: LEON (above the lion),
and CASA DSOLE (below the king’s feet).</div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> contains five separate representations of the
Sun, as follows:</div>
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61v: The sun is portrayed as a seated king, wearing a
four-pronged crown. He holds a
three-pronged scepter in his left hand, and rests his right hand in his lap. My first thought when I examined this
and several other illustrations in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> was that perhaps the illustrations had been drawn from a
printing block, resulting in this reversal of left and right. However, here as elsewhere, the
reversal of left and right is only partial—in this case, a sun with eleven rays
and a face, sharply tilted to the left, appears at top left, while a
six-pointed star appears at top right, between the king’s face and the top of
his scepter, so the left-right orientation of these objects is the same as in
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>. The circle at the bottom left of the
drawing displays a pouncing lion (Leo, left), and a much smaller circle at
bottom right contains a small image of the full moon with a face. Strangely enough, like the sun’s face
at upper left, this face is lying on its side, with its chin to the right. No labels.</div>
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64v: As above, but this time the sun (again, tilted to the left)
has eight rays, and the star only five points. There is no circle around the pouncing lion, and the moon at
lower right is completely shaded and has no face.</div>
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70v: This one is identical to 64v, except that the sun has nine
rays, and the star has six points.
The moon at lower right is dark as in 64v.</div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> (pp. 160, 174) contains an alternate
illustration for the sun, consisting simply of a sun with a face, surrounded by
16 flames and numerous rays. This
version finds its counterpart in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> 67v (a sun with a face, surrounded by eight flames and numerous
rays, which are surrounded in turn by two concentric circles).</div>
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62r: Here is yet another version of the sun: a lion, walking toward the left, with a
mane and a human-like face. To the
left (outside the box) appears a small image of the sun with nine rays and a
face.</div>
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<img align="left" alt="70v-71r" height="179" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image122.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_162" width="191" /><img alt="64v-65r" height="177" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image124.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_36" width="159" /></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 64v<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>, 70v</div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 62r <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 67v</div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 160 (illustration duplicated on p. 174)</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Taxonomy of Solar
representations<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Giordano
Bruno, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ars Memoriae</i> (1582) Giordano
Bruno, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De Imaginum Compositione</i>
(1591)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<img align="left" alt="beham_sun_tmb" height="271" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image136.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_34" width="188" /><img align="left" alt="manteg5" height="282" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image138.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_33" width="174" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Tarocchi di Mantegna</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (c1465) Hans
Sebald Beham (1530/40)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">woodblock print of the Sun (C. Warnock)
manuscript representation of the Sun (C. Warnock)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<img align="left" height="180" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image144.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_166" width="240" /><img align="left" height="187" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image146.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_155" width="221" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Sayyid Muhammad b. Amir Hasan Su’udi (1582) Indian
representation of the Sun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Based on these data, it can be said that the sun generally appears as a
king wearing a crown, sometimes seated on a throne or in a chariot. He may be holding one or two
objects: a scepter or torch, and a
book. If holding just a scepter,
it is always in the king’s right hand; if holding two objects, the scepter may
be either in the right or left hand.
The sun is associated with horses in several cases, and of course with
the lion (since the sun rules Leo).
Since the sun rules only one sign of the zodiac, only one circle appears
in Bruno’s images of 1582 and 1591, as well as Beham’s woodcut (in the two
latter cases this is accomplished by using a chariot with just one axle). The sun appears above the scepter in
Bruno (1582), and covers the king’s secrets in the Warnock woodcut. The sun glyph appears to the right in
both of these, but floats just in front of the figure in Beham’s woodcut. The Islamic version simply portrays the
sun rising over hills, while the Indian representaton portrays the sun as a
divine being seated in a chariot drawn by six horses.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> departs from these conventions in several
important ways. First, the
seven-pointed star at upper right has no parallels elsewhere. Also, it appears that the illustrator
was extremely attached to the practice of illustrating two zodiacal signs at
the bottom of the picture; since the sun requires only Leo, he has filled in
the right-hand circle with a crescent moon which is simply inexplicable in the
context. Finally, I can find no
precedent for the portrayal of the sun with its face tilted to the left.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> has followed the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> in all of these peculiarities—three times adding
a star on the upper right (five or six points), and three times including a
representation of the moon at lower right (full moon or new moon). The leftward tilt of the sun’s face is
also imitated from the Italian source.
Finally, in all three cases the king holds his scepter in his left
hand—this is very strange, and again finds no parallel either in Beltrano or
among the other representations I have assembled here.<o:p></o:p></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">c.
Representations of Mars</b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<img align="left" alt="62v-63r" height="252" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image148.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_167" width="427" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 62v<o:p></o:p></div>
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<img align="left" height="224" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image150.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_168" width="433" /><o:p></o:p></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 171 (illustration duplicated on pages
159, 181) <o:p></o:p></div>
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In the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
Mars is portrayed as a warrior seated on a hillock, wearing a cuirass and
helmet. He holds a sword in his
right hand, and his left hand is extended. To the left of his head appears an eight-pointed star with a
tail, and to the right of his head appears the Mars glyph (tilted to the left,
not to the right as commonly). Two
circles appear at the bottom of the picture. The left circle contains a scorpion (Scorpio), while the
right circle contains a bull (Taurus); this seems to be an error, since the
signs ruled by Mars are Aries and Scorpio, not Taurus and Scorpio. There are three labels: SCORP above the left-hand circle,
ARIETE (correct) above the right-hand circle, and beneath the warrior’s feet,
CASA DMARTE.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> portrays Mars in a
crouching position (no hill is visible), and instead of the helmet and cuirass,
he appears to be wearing a cap and parti-colored clothing (light on the left,
shaded on the right), something like the Joker in a deck of cards. <o:p></o:p></div>
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62v: Very strangely, Mars holds his sword in
his left hand! His right hand is
extended. The Mars glyph appears
to the left of his head, and an eight-pointed star (no tail) to the right of
his head. Both these arrangements
are the mirror-opposite of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i> illustration. At
bottom left, there is a sheep (no horns); at bottom right, a scorpion (again,
this arrangement reverses that found in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i> illustration. Neither
of these is surrounded by a circle, and there are no labels.<o:p></o:p></div>
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68v: This version is identical to that of
62v, but in this case the ruminant is clearly a ram, with horns. Notice how the glued strip of paper
used to update the almanac has peeled aside, revealing the original date
written in red ink—this and other similar instances reveal that the cycle has
been updated (brought forward by 84 years).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
73r: This version is identical to the other
two, but in this case the ram has been replaced by a bull (Taurus)—perpetuating
the error seen in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>. The warrior is more thickset than in
the other illustrations, and his clothing is all of the same color. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Thus,
the illustrations of Mars found in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> may be interpreted as mirror-reversals of the one in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> in every detail.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="73v-74r" height="158" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image152.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_169" width="148" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img alt="68v-69r" height="154" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image154.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_41" width="252" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 68v<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>, 73r<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Taxonomy of Mars
representations<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="mar3" height="151" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image156.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_170" width="135" /> <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<img align="left" alt="mar4" height="139" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image158.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_171" width="193" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Giordano
Bruno, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ars Memoriae</i> (1582) Giordano
Bruno, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De Imaginum Compositione</i>
(1591)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="beham_mars_tmb" height="271" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image160.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_36" width="189" /><img alt="manteg5" height="281" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image162.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_42" width="162" /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Tarocchi di Mantegna</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (c1465) Hans
Sebald Beham (1530/40)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 10pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="204" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image164.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_52" width="256" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img alt="wodblokmar" height="221" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image166.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_43" width="168" /></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">woodblock
print of Mars (C. Warnock) Sayyid
Muhammad b. Amir Hasan Su’udi (1582)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="planet_mars" height="220" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image168.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_37" width="173" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img alt="dtc" height="341" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image170.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_44" width="215" /></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Turkish representations of Mars (E. Baer) Indian
representation of Mars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
Based
on these data, it can be said that Mars is portrayed as a warrior, usually
seated on a throne or in a chariot.
In his right hand, he holds a weapon (a sword, axe, or spear), and may
hold a shield in his left.
However, Warnock’s engraving has him holding a torch in his right hand
and an axe in his left, with a sword suspended from his waist; Beham portrays
him with a shield in his right hand and nothing in his right.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Mars
is associated with horses or dogs (“let slip the dogs of war”). The two signs ruled by Mars may appear
in two circles or wheels, with Aries on the left and Scorpio on the right
(Bruno 1582, 1591, Beham, Warnock).
A star appears on the upper left (Bruno 1582), but covers the secrets in
the Warnock engraving. The Mars
glyph appears at upper right (Bruno 1582), but Beham has it floating in front
of the figure. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
Islamic representations agree in placing an axe in his right hand and a pointed
hat on his head. The Indian
representation portrays him as a warrior riding on a ram, with a sword in his
right hand and a shield in his left.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> is eccentric in
downplaying the warrior’s martial character (no helmet or cuirass), in
confounding Taurus with Aries (an error apparently copied from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>), and, above all, in
consistently portraying him as a left-handed swordsman. <o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">d.
Representations of the Moon</b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="67v-68r" height="195" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image172.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_172" width="426" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 68r<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="227" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image174.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_173" width="420" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 167<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> portrays the Moon as
a seated woman (possibly on a field of grass—perhaps because the moon is
associated with dew). In her right
hand, she holds an object which appears to be a torch; her left hand is
extended and appears to be pointing upwards. On the upper left is a crescent moon with horns inward,
while on the upper right is another crescent moon with a face in the
unilluminated portion (also with horns inward). There are two circles at the bottom of the picture. The left circle contains a crab
(Cancer), while the right circle contains something that looks like the pages
of an open book. There are two
labels: CAN above the crab, and
CASA D LUNA beneath the woman’s feet.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia </i>follows this model,
but with several differences.
Instead of a torch, the woman holds an arrow; and instead of pointing
upward, her left hand rests in her lap.
There is nothing comparable to the “grass” suggested by the double line
of squares in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>. In every case, the woman’s skirt is
hiked up to reveal her left knee—a detail which is reminiscent of the
representations of Senacher (the second decanate of Aries) as a woman with one
leg extended or uncovered.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
68r: In her right hand, the woman holds an
arrow, point down; her left hand rests in her lap. At upper left appears a crescent moon with a face in its
unilluminated portion, while at upper right there is a crescent moon with a
face seen in profile (the reverse of their arrangement in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>). In the circle at bottom left is a crab
with a head which curiously resembles the shape of a crescent moon; in the
circle at bottom right is an object which appears to be a moon with a cratered
surface, the right limb of which is shaded.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
71r: Here, the crab grasps the tip of the
arrow with its left claw, and the crescent moon at upper right is a simple
lunar glyph, with horns pointing inward.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
73r: This version is identical to 71r,
except that the point of the arrow is now hidden behind the woman’s right knee,
and its tail is of a different design.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="72v-73r" height="188" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image176.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_174" width="183" /><img align="left" alt="70v-71r" height="178" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image178.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_175" width="210" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 71r <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 73r<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Taxonomy of Lunar
representations<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="lun4" height="137" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image180.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_177" width="202" /><img align="left" alt="lun3" height="155" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image182.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_176" width="155" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Giordano
Bruno, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ars Memoriae</i> (1582) Giordano
Bruno, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De Imaginum Compositione</i>
(1591)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="beham_luna_tmb" height="271" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image184.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_39" width="184" /><img alt="manteg5" height="281" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image186.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_45" width="166" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Tarocchi di Mantegna</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (c1465) Hans
Sebald Beham (1530/40)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img alt="wodblokmon" height="222" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image188.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_46" width="172" /> <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="232" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image190.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_150" width="208" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">woodblock
print of the Moon (C. Warnock) 15<sup>th</sup>
century Italian representation of the Moon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (C.
Warnock)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="planet_moon" height="244" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image192.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_149" width="187" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="191" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image194.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_51" width="211" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Sayyid
Muhammad b. Amir Hasan Su’udi (1582) Indian
representation of the Moon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 10pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
Based on these data, it can be said that the Moon is generally
portrayed as <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
woman (though the
figure in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tarocchi di Mantegna</i>
may be male), and is usually seated on a throne or in a chariot. In her right hand, she holds an arrow
with the point down, or a hunting horn (both of these are probably references
to her association with Artemis, the goddess of the hunt). In her left hand, the woman sometimes
holds something else—a spear (Warnock), or possibly a torch (in the 15<sup>th</sup>
century Italian illustration).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The moon is associated with a dragon (Bruno 1591), with horses (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tarocchi di Mantegna</i>), and in the Beham
engraving, her chariot is drawn by paynims; in Bruno’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De imaginum compositione</i> (1591), it is drawn by two women.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
An image of the crab, the sign of Cancer, may appear in a circle or
wheel (Bruno 1582, 1591; Beham; 15<sup>th</sup> century Italian
representation). An image of a
crescent moon may also appear (at upper left in Bruno 1582; on a disk which
covers the woman’s secrets in the Warnock woodcut and in the 15<sup>th</sup>
century Italian representation).
The crescent moon glyph may also appear (at upper right in Bruno 1582
and in the Warnock woodcut, but floating ahead of the woman in the Beham
engraving).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Islamic representation is simply the moon rising over a landscape, while
the Indian representation has the figure riding on a deer. Neither of these is of any particular
relevance to the illustrations we are analyzing.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The representations in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i> and in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>
most closely follow the one which appears in Bruno’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ars Memoriae</i> (1582), where both a crescent moon with a face and a
simple crescent moon glyph appear.
However, as in the case of the Sun, the association of just one
constellation with the Moon appears to have troubled the illustrator of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, and a second image
has been added at lower right, something resembling the pages of an open book;
whatever this object is, the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> has replaced it with a picture of the cratered lunar disk,
shaded on the right. I can find no
precedent for these strange second images associated with the sun and moon.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 10pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">e.
Representations of Mercury</b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="68v-69r" height="234" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image196.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_178" width="407" /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 69r<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img height="223" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image198.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_47" width="407" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 163 (illustration duplicated on pages
172, 180)<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359" name="OLE_LINK3"></a><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359" name="OLE_LINK4"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> <o:p></o:p></i></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> portrays Mercury as a man standing on a hill
or a wall, wearing a winged helmet, cuirass, and boots. In his right hand is the caduceus, and
his left hand is extended. The
Mercury glyph appears at upper right.
At the bottom of the engraving are two circles. The left circle contains an image of a
woman with a scepter in her right hand (Virgo); the right circle contains two
male children embracing (Gemini).
There are three labels:
VIRGI above the left circle, GEMINE above the right circle, and CASA
DMERCURI beneath the feet of the figure.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia </i>closely follows this
model, although there is no hill or wall to be seen in the background.<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
69r: There are no circles surrounding the
small images of Virgo and Gemini, and no labels. Virgo is seated and has her right hand extended, but has no
scepter.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
71v: Here, Mercury holds the caduceus in his
left hand, and rests his right hand in his lap; the Mercury glyph has been
shifted to upper left; the small figure of Virgo holds a scepter in her right
hand. Very strangely, Gemini has
been replaced by what appears to be a scorpion (Scorpio) at lower right!<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
74r: As in 71v, Mercury holds the caduceus
in his left hand, and rests his right hand in his lap, with the Mercury glyph at
upper left; as in 71v, one of the signs conventionally associated with Mercury
appears (Gemini, at lower right); but the other has been replaced by a sign
which is not associated with Mercury—in this case, at lower left there appears
a centaur shooting an arrow (Sagittarius).
This is especially strange because Sagittarius and Gemini are
diametrically opposite to each other in the zodiac.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="73v-74r" height="160" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image200.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_179" width="192" /><img align="left" alt="71v-72r" height="156" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image202.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_181" width="192" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 71v <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 74r<o:p></o:p></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Taxonomy of Mercury
representations<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img alt="mer3" height="153" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image204.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_48" width="143" /> <img alt="mer4" height="139" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image206.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_49" width="190" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Giordano
Bruno, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ars Memoriae</i> (1582) Giordano
Bruno, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De Imaginum Compositione</i>
(1591)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="beham_mercury_tmb" height="271" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image208.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_182" width="188" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img alt="manteg5" height="284" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image210.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_50" width="170" /></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Tarocchi di Mantegna</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (c1465) Hans
Sebald Beham (1530/40)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 10pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="203" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image212.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_183" width="226" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img alt="wodblokmerc" height="221" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image214.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_51" width="165" /></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">woodblock
print of Mercury (C. Warnock) manuscript
representation of Mercury <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 3.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (C. Warnock)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="209" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image216.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_50" width="250" /><img align="left" alt="planet_mercury" height="226" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image218.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_184" width="177" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Sayyid
Muhammad b. Amir Hasan Su’udi (1582) Indian
representation of Mercury<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 10pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
Based
on the data collected, it may be said that Mercury is usually represented as a
man wearing a winged helmet and (often) with winged boots. He may appear standing or seated on a
throne or in a chariot. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In
his right hand (but in his left hand in Beham’s engraving), he holds the
caduceus (or simply two coiled snakes in the Warnock woodcut). Usually there is nothing in his left
hand, but in both representations given by Warnock he is holding an object in
his left hand—possibly a bag of money or a garment. In the Tarocchi di Mantegna, he appears to be playing a pipe
or flute which is held in the left hand.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Mercury
is associated with eagles (Bruno 1582, 1591, Beham), or with a rooster (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tarocchi di Mantegna</i>)—perhaps this is “a
cock for Aesculapius.” There is
also a severed head lying between his feet in that same representation.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
two signs ruled by Mercury may appear at the bottom of the picture—Gemini on
the left and Virgo on the right (in both representations given by Warnock, and
in Bruno 1582, where both Gemini and Virgo have been Christianized as angels);
or Virgo on the left and Gemini on the right (Bruno 1591, Beham).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A
star appears at upper left (Bruno 1582), but covers the figure’s secrets in the
Warnock woodcut. The Mercury glyph
may also appear—at upper right (Bruno 1582), at lower right (Warnock woodcut),
or floating ahead of the figure (Beham).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As
in other cases, the Islamic and Indian representations appear to be irrelevant;
it is interesting to note, however, that the Indian representation has Mercury
riding a tiger (“there was a young lady of Niger . . .”).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Two
of the illustrations in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> (71v and 74r) are a bit unusual in placing the caduceus in
Mercury’s left hand (though in this they follow Beham and Warnock’s manuscript
representation), but extremely anomalous in associating Mercury with the Virgo
and Scorpio (71v) and with Sagittarius and Gemini (74r).<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 10pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">f.
Representations of Venus</b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="69v-70r" height="205" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image220.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_185" width="372" /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 69v<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="193" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image222.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_186" width="365" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 164<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
These last two (Venus and Saturn) may well be the key to the whole
thing! In the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, Venus appears as a seated woman with long hair,
wearing a gown. In her right hand
is an orb, shaded on one side.
Here left hand rests in her lap, but appears to be pointing toward
bottom left. Above the orb is an
eight-pointed star with a hollow center. At top right, the Venus glyph appears. There are two circles at the bottom of
the picture, with a pair of scales in the left circle (Libra) and a reclining
bull in the right circle (Taurus).
There are three labels:
LIBRA above the left circle, TAUR above the right circle, and CASA D
VENERE beneath the woman’s feet.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> again makes some strange mirror reversals of
the image in <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
the<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Almanacco Perpetuo.<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
69v: Here we see the same woman in the same
position, but the figure is reversed!
She holds an orb in her extended left hand, while her right hand rests
in her lap, pointing toward bottom right.
There is some suggestion of an object in this hand, perhaps a set of
keys? Above the orb is an
eight-pointed star. The Venus
glyph appears next to the figure’s head at upper left. At bottom left there is a pair of
scales (Libra); at bottom right there is a reclining bull (Taurus). There are no circles or labels. Thus, although the woman has been
reversed, the small images of Libra and Taurus have not been reversed from
their arrangement in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
72r: Here, the woman is sitting, as if
cross-legged on ground, and the whole composition is compacted vertically. Otherwise it is identical to 69v.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img alt="71v-72r" height="159" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image224.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_52" width="236" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 72r<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Taxonomy of Venus
representations<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="ven3" height="155" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image226.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_187" width="137" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="ven4" height="141" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image228.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_188" width="199" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Giordano
Bruno, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ars Memoriae</i> (1582) Giordano
Bruno, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De Imaginum Compositione</i>
(1591)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="beham_venus_tmb" height="271" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image230.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_55" width="189" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img alt="manteg5" height="283" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image232.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_53" width="152" /></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Tarocchi di Mantegna</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (c1465) Hans
Sebald Beham (1530/40)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
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<img align="left" height="198" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image234.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_190" width="216" /><img alt="wodblokven" height="225" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image236.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_54" width="146" /> </div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">woodblock
print of Venus (C. Warnock) manuscript
representation of Venus <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">(C. Warnock)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<img align="left" alt="planet_venus" height="215" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image238.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_189" width="165" /><img align="left" height="207" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image240.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_48" width="252" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Sayyid
Muhammad b. Amir Hasan Su’udi (1582) Indian
representation of Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 10pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
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Based on the data collected, it may be said that Venus is represented
as a female figure with hair emphasized (long in Bruno 1582, tied up in Bruno
1591, blowing in Beham, very long in the Warnock woodcut, adorned with a wreath
in the Warnock manuscript representation). She sometimes wears a gown, but sometimes appears nude. She may be portrayed standing, or
seated on a throne or in a chariot.
In Bruno’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ars Memoriae</i>
(1582), she is wearing a winged helmet; while in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De imaginum compositione</i> (1591), she has wings in her hair. In her right hand, she holds either an
arrow (point may be either up or down) or a spray of leaves; the arrow is in
her left hand, however, in the Beham engraving, where she holds Cupid’s leash
in her right hand. In her left
hand, she holds a burning heart or a mirror (note that the woman’s reflection
in the mirror is clearly visible in the Warnock woodcut). <o:p></o:p></div>
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Venus is associated with birds (probably doves), and of course with the
figure of the blindfolded Cupid with his arrows. <o:p></o:p></div>
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A star may appear (a 16-pointed star at upper left in Bruno 1582; a 6
or 8-pointed star covering the woman’s secrets in both representations provided
by Warnock); the Venus glyph appears at upper right (Bruno 1582), floating in
front of the figure in Beham’s engraving.
<o:p></o:p></div>
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The signs associated with Venus may appear at the bottom: Taurus on the left, Libra on the right
(Bruno 1582, 1591, Beham, Warnock woodcut); Libra on the left, Taurus on the
right (Warnock manuscript representation). The bull of Taurus may be cut off at the shoulders or may
appear as a complete figure.<o:p></o:p></div>
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The Islamic representation is a female figure, but is otherwise
irrelevant; the Indian representation has Venus riding on a flying horse.<o:p></o:p></div>
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Now this is very interesting:
based on the two representations found on Warnock’s website, the “orb”
which appears in the woman’s hand in both the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> and in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> must be a mirror, and indeed the figure in 69v may be seen as a
woman looking into a mirror! The
lines in the woman’s lap are not keys, but are probably the spray of leaves
which is seen in both of Warnock’s illustrations. Research is required to ascertain what plant this may
be. For once, the rulerships are
correct—studiously so. Could it be
that in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> she is
holding the mirror out to catch the reflection of the star? <o:p></o:p></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">g.
Representations of Saturn</b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<img align="left" alt="69v-70r" height="159" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image242.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_192" width="406" /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 70r<o:p></o:p></div>
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<img align="left" height="213" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image244.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_191" width="404" /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 165<o:p></o:p></div>
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<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
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The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>
portrays Saturn as a seated man with a beard, wearing a robe girded in the
middle. In his right hand, he
holds a scythe with a double blade extended over his head. Just opposite the blade, as if part of
its attachment to the shaft, is an 8-pointed star, and just below it, next to
his hand, is the Saturn glyph. In
his left hand is a circular object with two rims, joined by 2 triangles at the
apex, something like a big wedding ring.
There are two circles at the bottom: in the left circle is a sea-goat (Capricorn); on the right
is a female water-carrier, pouring water from a vessel (Aquarius). There are three labels: CAPRI above the sea-goat, AQUA above
the water-carrier, CASA D SATUR beneath the figure’s feet.<o:p></o:p></div>
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In
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, Saturn is the
same figure, but has a longer beard, a bald head, and his scythe blade is
single-edged. Everything appears
in the same arrangement as in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i>, but with two very important exceptions: first, instead of the “ring,” Saturn is holding an orb
exactly like the one held by Venus in
69v (but without shading), and he grips it in the same way—so there can
be little doubt that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>
portrays Saturn holding a mirror!
Second, instead of Aquarius at lower right, there is a prancing bull
(Taurus). There are no labels or
circles.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
So
once again, we see the unaccountable replacement of a sign associated with the
figure with another sign which is not associated with it. In this case, there is a possible
explanation—the bull drawn at lower right is identical to the bull which
appears in the Venus illustration on the facing page. The bull could have been copied from the facing page
(assuming the pages were produced in that order), though there is no rational
reason for it. <o:p></o:p></div>
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<img align="left" alt="easy to remember" height="308" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image246.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_56" width="492" /><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</span></i><span style="font-size: 11pt;"> 69r-70v. Note the
resemblance of the bull associated (incorrectly) with Saturn to the bull
associated (correctly) with Venus on the facing page.<br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span> <o:p></o:p></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Taxonomy of Saturn
representations<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<img align="left" alt="sat3" height="155" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image248.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_193" width="140" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<img align="left" alt="sat4" height="144" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image250.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_194" width="199" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Giordano
Bruno, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ars Memoriae</i> (1582) Giordano
Bruno, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De Imaginum Compositione</i>
(1591)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<img align="left" alt="beham_saturn_tmb" height="271" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image252.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_43" width="189" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img alt="manteg5" height="280" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image254.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_55" width="170" /></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Tarocchi di Mantegna</span></i><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (c1465) Hans
Sebald Beham (1530/40)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<img align="left" height="300" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image256.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_151" width="389" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Saturn (mediaeval manuscript,
http://galileo.rice.edu/images/things/saturn_manuscript.gif) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img height="272" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image258.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_56" width="350" /></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Renaissance representation of Saturn
(http://www.metasymbology.com/saturn.html)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<img align="left" height="241" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image260.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_152" width="184" /><o:p></o:p></div>
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<img align="left" height="230" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image262.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_153" width="170" /><o:p></o:p></div>
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Two representations of Saturn with sickle (pruning hook)
(http://www.geocities.com/serpentofgnosis/Saturn.html)<o:p></o:p></div>
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<img height="238" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image264.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_57" width="264" /><o:p></o:p></div>
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Saturn with the signs of Aquarius and Capricorn<o:p></o:p></div>
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(C. Warnock)<br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
<img align="left" height="206" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image266.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_49" width="244" /><img alt="wodbloksat" height="218" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image268.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_58" width="161" />
</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">woodblock
print of Saturn (C. Warnock) Sayyid
Muhammad b. Amir Hasan Su’udi (1582)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" alt="planet_saturn" height="267" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image270.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_44" width="210" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img alt="dtc" height="343" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image272.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_59" width="201" /></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Turkish representations of Saturn (E. Baer) Indian
representation of Saturn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Based
on the various representations of Saturn assembled here, it can be said that
Saturn is generally portrayed as an aged man with a beard, usually wearing a
hat. He is sometimes bald, and
although he may be pictured sitting on a throne or riding in a chariot, his
demeanor is often that of a beggar—nude or partially clad in shabby clothing,
supporting himself with a crutch or cane.
This portrayal of Saturn as a beggar is reminiscent of Wotan (walking
among mortal men disguised as a beggar); the Islamic representations of Saturn
(along with those of Mars) are the only ones which closely parallel the western
conventions; in the Islamic sources, Saturn is portrayed as an old beggar with
a beard, crouching shirtless in the street or next to the road, either bald or
wearing a tall hat. Like the
western version of Saturn, he bears a scythe (barely distinguishable from the
axe carried by Mars in Islamic representations). This portrayal of Saturn as a being who frequents public
thoroughfares is closely parallel to the western conception of him, and also
brings to mind the Abkhaz legend of the “Prince of the Dead,” which was the
subject of my other short paper.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Saturn
is generally represented holding a large scythe (or, alternately, a sickle);
obviously this motif has survived into modern times as “Father Time” or the
“Old Year,” commonly associated with New Year’s Eve—a thinly-disguised
representation of Saturn. The
scythe may curve back overhead from left to right, or may hang back over
Saturn’s shoulder, or it may rest on the ground (also with the blade extending
from left to right). There is only
one instance here (“renaissance representation of Saturn”) where the blade
points to the left. When Saturn
holds a sickle, he usually brandishes it overhead in a threatening manner, with
the point away from him. The
scythe or sickle may be held in either hand (10 times in the right hand,
including all of the Islamic representations; three times in the left
hand). In his other hand (usually
the left), Saturn very often holds a crutch, or sometimes an infant whom he is
devouring. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Saturn’s
chariot may be drawn by two serpents or two cockatrices, biting their
tails. In some cases he is
accompanied by his children, whom he is about to devour. In the Warnock woodcut, the child
water-bearer does double duty as a representation of Aquarius and as Saturn’s
potential child victim.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A
16-pointed star appears at top left in Bruno’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ars Memoriae</i> (1582), while in three of the representations,
Saturn’s secrets are covered by a six-pointed star. The Saturn glyph may also appear (at top right in Bruno
1582; floating in front of the figure in Beham’s engraving.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Sometimes
the signs ruled by Saturn appear at the bottom of the picture—Aquarius on the
left and Capricorn on the right (Bruno 1582, Beham, both representations
supplied by Warnock, one of the “pruning hook” illustrations); or Capricorn on
the left and Aquarius on the right (Bruno 1591, Rice University mediaeval
manuscript). Capricorn is
sometimes represented as a sea-goat, sometimes simply as a goat; this appears
to be a common substitution, on the same order as the variants of Taurus as the
head and shoulders or as the entire figure of a bull. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
Indian representation of Saturn (a warrior riding a bull, armed with a sword
and trident) does not seem particularly relevant.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Thus,
the portrayal of Saturn holding a mirror in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> (and in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>, which follows it) is highly unusual; as is the substitution in
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> of the bull for
the water-bearer.<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Through the Looking Glass?<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
While
the mirror is one of the iconographic conventions associated with Venus, it is
hard to understand why the depictions of Saturn in both the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> have him holding a
mirror. There appears to be no
precedent for this. It should be
noted, however, that in astrological lore, Venus and Saturn are often described
as being “friends”—as having a mutual affinity, despite the marked contrast
between them (as the “lesser benefic” and the “greater malefic”).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Since
the representations of Venus and Saturn appear on facing pages in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, it might be
possible to explain the substitution of Taurus for Aquarius in the Saturn
illustration, as well as the identical orbs held by both figures, in terms of
the copying of elements from the left-hand page onto the right-hand page. However, this fails to explain why both
figures are holding mirrors in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i>; although they appear on facing pages in that work as well, the
“orbs” they hold are markedly different in appearance. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
If
we agree to entertain the possibility that these works contain secret
information in a coded form, it is possible that these two illustrations are an
important part of the message—perhaps even the key to it all.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Not
only are both Venus and Saturn holding mirrors, but they appear on facing
pages. Moreover, the illustrations
in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiroman’tia</i> contain many
strange left-right reversals of elements found in their counterparts in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>. As I have already noted, the original
preface to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>
contains repeated references to mirrors.
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
All
of this may point to the possibility that someone in Europe (perhaps someone
acquainted with Ottavio Beltrano) had built a large reflecting telescope but
had for some reason chosen not to publish a record of his observations. Simonia (1998) argues that <o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
such a discovery [of the Martian satellites] could be made only with
the <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
help of a reflecting telescope.
Any other telescope of that time (such as <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
those of Hevelius, Huygens and Flamsteed) suffered from different <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
aberrations although their objectives were of quite big diameters and
it <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
was altogether possible to observe the satellites of Mars through those
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
telescopes. Moreover, in
the late 17<sup>th</sup> and early 18<sup>th</sup> centuries the <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
mathematician, physicist and philosopher Tschirnhaus made large concave
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
mirrors and lenses; and in 1722 the astronomer Hadley made one of the <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
first reflectors with a main mirror diameter of 15 cm (Newton and Hook <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
had built smaller reflectors earlier). (p. 174).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This
idea is, of course, highly speculative, but further study of both works (and
especially of earlier editions of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i>) may provide additional evidence. It is very interesting to note that in the Venus
illustration in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>
(69v), and especially in its counterpart in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i> (p. 164), Venus can be construed as holding out
her mirror to reflect the star which appears just above it in both versions!<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Page 21v (not available to me) contains
the following very interesting statement:
“First we must know that God created the Sun and Moon and ordered that
the Moon should receive its light from the Sun. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Moon itself is a
blank</i>. The Moon illuminates us
after receiving its light from the Sun” (Simonia 1999:¶40 [italics mine]). This passage may well a survival of an
ancient idea mentioned by Plutarch and later affirmed by Averro<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">ë</b>s (Ariew 1992), namely that “the full moon is
itself in uniformity and luster the finest and clearest of all mirrors”
(Plutarch, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De facie quae in orbe lunae
apparet</i>, 921A), and that the irregular features which appear there are in
fact the reflections of the earth’s oceans and continents. <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
It is equally possible that these repeated references to mirrors hint
at some occult use of mirrors—a technology as yet unrecognized by science.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
juxtaposition of a mirror in the left hand of Venus (benefic) and a mirror in
the left hand of Saturn (malefic, associated with the color black) is also
highly interesting. This brings to
mind once again the “black mirror” of western occultism, and especially the
contrasting shining mirror (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">aspaqlarya
de-nahara</i>) and opaque mirror (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">aspaqlarya de-la nahara</i>) mentioned
repeatedly in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zohar</i>, both of
which are associated with prophecy (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bereshis
A</i> 17:193). Moreover, the
images of Venus and Saturn appear on facing pages (69v-70r) in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>—another sort of
mirroring.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
These
associations may have more than a merely speculative basis, when considered in
light of the Abkhaz folktale about “The Man who Used to Swear by the Prince of
the Dead,” which I have analyzed in my other short paper. This story demonstrates the existence
in the Caucasus of a native tradition about mirrors, embodying ideas of
considerable depth and complexity.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="color: green; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Left-Handed
Combatants?<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It
should also be stressed that it is highly unusual in planetary representations
to portray the planets holding their characteristic objects (especially
weapons) in the left hand. An
exception may be seen below, where the planetary representations are arranged
in two files to left and right of center (an arrangement suggestive of the
astrological doctrine of doryphory).
Here, the figures on the right hold their weapons in the left hand,
extended away from the center; yet even here, something anomalous appears—why
is Jupiter (on the left) holding his scepter in his left hand?</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="462" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image274.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_195" width="345" /><o:p></o:p></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
17<sup>th</sup> century Rosicrucian diagram of the seven planets and 12
signs (http://fourhares.com/freemasonry/alchemical_wedding.html)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">10.
Synopsis of the Perpetual Almanac (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">76v</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<img alt="76v" height="238" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image276.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_60" width="268" /><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 76v<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<img height="311" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image278.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_61" width="250" /><o:p></o:p></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt; text-indent: -.5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Almanacco
Perpetuo</i>, p. 185<o:p></o:p></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="mso-special-character: line-break; page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt; text-indent: -.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This
page, in both almanacs, appears to present a synopsis of the 28-year perpetual
almanac cycle. This is a good
place to summarize the data found in this table and to check it against what
appears on the preceding pages:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> [page
185] [perpetual
almanac, pp. 145-150]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">year ruler
sign
pictured lord
of year sign ruler<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1720 Mars Scorpio Mars;
Sco./Tau. Venus Scorpio Mars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1721 Sun Sagittarius Sun Sun Sagittarius Jupiter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1722 Moon Sagittarius Jupiter;
Pis./Sag. Moon Sagittarius Jupiter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1723 Mars Capricorn ----- Mars Capricorn Saturn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1724 Mercury Capricorn Mercury;
Vir./Gem. Mercury Capricorn Saturn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1725 Venus Capricorn Venus;
Lib./Tau. Venus Capricorn Saturn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1726 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Jupiter</b> Aquarius Saturn;
Cap./Aqu. Saturn Aquarius Saturn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1727 Sun Aquarius Sun;
Leo/<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Moon</b> Sun Aquarius Saturn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1728 Moon Pisces Moon;
Can./Moon Moon Pisces Jupiter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1729 Mercury Pisces ----- Mercury Pisces Jupiter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1730 Jupiter Aries ----- Jupiter Aries Mars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1731 Venus Aries ----- Venus Aries Mars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1732 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Jupiter Taurus</b> ----- Saturn Aries Mars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1733 Moon Taurus ----- Moon Taurus Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1734 Mars Taurus Mars;
Sco./Tau. Mars Taurus Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1735 Mercury Gemini Mercury;
Vir./Gem. Mercury Gemini Mercury<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1736 Jupiter Gemini ----- Jupiter Gemini Mercury<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1737 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Jupiter</b> Libra ----- Saturn Libra Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1738 Sun Cancer Sun Sun Cancer Moon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1739 Moon Leo ----- Moon Leo Sun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1740 Mars Leo ----- Mars Leo Sun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1741 Jupiter <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Scorpio</b> ----- <span style="color: red;">Jupiter</span> Leo Sun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1742 Mercury Libra ----- Venus Virgo Mercury<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1743 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Mars Libra</b> ----- Saturn Virgo Mercury<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1744 Sun Libra Sun;
Leo/<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Moon</b> Sun Libra Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1745 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Saturn Virgo</b> ----- Mars Libra Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1746 Venus Virgo Mercury;
Vir./Gem. Mercury Libra Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1747 Jupiter Scorpio Mars;
Sco./Tau. Jupiter Scorpio Mars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I
have indicated with bold type those instances (in the first three columns)
where the summary does not match either the illustrations or the text found in
the almanac itself, as well as those instances (in the fourth column) where an
“erroneous” association has been made.
It thus becomes evident that the correspondence between the summary and
the preceding almanac pages is quite good. Not so with <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> (see next page).<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> [page
76v; 75v-76r] [perpetual
almanac, pp. 60v-74r]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="font-size: 10pt;">year</span></u><span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <u>ruler</u> <u>sign</u> <u>pictured</u> <u>lord
of year</u> <u>sign</u> <u>ruler</u><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1652 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Mars Taurus</b> Jupiter;
Pis./Sag. <span style="color: green;">Jupiter</span> Gemini Mercury<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1653 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">MercuryGemini</b> Libra Saturn Libra Venus <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1654 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: green;">Jupiter</span> Gemini</b> Sun;
Leo/<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Moon</b> Sun Cancer Moon<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1655 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Saturn Libra</b> Leo;
Sun Moon Leo
Sun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1656 Sun <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Cancer</b> Mars;
Ari./Sco. Mars Leo Sun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1657 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Moon</b> Leo Jupiter Jupiter Leo Sun<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1658 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Mars Leo</b> Virgo;
Venus Venus Virgo Mercury<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1659 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: red;">Jupiter</span> Leo</b> Virgo Saturn Virgo Mercury<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1660 Venus <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Virgo</b> Sun;
Leo/<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Moon</b> Sun Libra Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1661 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Saturn Virgo</b> Libra;
Venus Mars Libra Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1662 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Sun</b> Libra Libra;
Venus Mercury Libra Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1663 Mars <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Libra</b> Jupiter;
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Ari</b>./Sag. Jupiter Scorpio Mars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1664 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Mercury</b>Libra Scorpio;
Venus Venus Scorpio Mars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1665 Jupiter <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Scorpio</b> Sun Sun Sagittarius Jupiter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1666 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Venus Scorpio</b> Moon;
Can./Moon Moon Sagittarius Jupiter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1667 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Sun Sagittarius</b> Mars;
Ari./Sco. Mars Capricorn Saturn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1668 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Moon Sagittarius</b> Mercury;
Vir./Gem. Mercury Capricorn Saturn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1669 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Mars</b> Capricorn Venus;
Lib./Tau. Venus Capricorn Saturn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1670 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Mercury</b>Capricorn Saturn;
Cap./<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Tau.</b> Saturn Aquarius Saturn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1671 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Venus</b> Capricorn Sun;
Leo/<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Moon</b> Sun Aquarius Saturn<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1672 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Saturn Aquarius</b> Moon;
Can./Moon Moon Pisces Jupiter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1673 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Sun Aquarius</b> Mercury;
Vir./Sco. Mercury Pisces Jupiter<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1674 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Moon</b> Pisces Jupiter;
Cap./Sag. Jupiter Aries Mars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1675 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">MercuryPisces</b> Venus;
Lib./Tau. Venus Aries Mars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1676 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Jupiter</b> Aries Aries Saturn Aries Mars<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1677 Venus <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Aries</b> Moon;
Can./Moon Moon Taurus Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1678 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Saturn</b> Taurus Mars;
Tau./Sco. Mars Taurus Venus<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">1679 <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Moon Taurus</b> Mercury;
Sag./Gem. Mercury Gemini Mercury<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
astounding thing here is that we have finally obtained a key to the meaning of
the system of dating used throughout the manuscript: the sequence begins on the upper right, where the middle
circle starts with T’M (340), and continues clockwise through T’OZ (357) the
last year given at the top of the page.
This sequence corresponds to that of the inner circle, which begins with
CH-K-N-B (1652) and ends with CH-K-O-T (1679). There can be little doubt that T’M (340) is intended to
correlate with CH-K-N-B (1652).
This also matches the series of eclipses (31r-35r), which are designated
by the numbers T’M (340) through T’NG (353), and which have already been conclusively
identified as the eclipses of 1652-1665.
The date T’NIV (366) associated with the summer ingress for 1635 (59r)
remains inexplicable. The
periphrastic values from CH-K-N-I (1660, literally 1000 + 600 + 50 + 10)
through CH-K-N-IT (1669, literally 1000 + 600 + 50 + 19) can be explained as a
way of avoiding the use of the obsolescent letter Y, which is conventionally
used to represent the number 60.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
It is now possible to state with some confidence that in its original
form, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> presented a
28-year “perpetual almanac” which covered the years 1652 through 1679, with
additional three additional years keyed to each prognostication resulting in
three further 28-year cycles (1680-1707, 1708-1735, 1736-1763). At some point, strips of paper were
added to update the almanac by 84 years, and these strips listed five (not
four) years each. It appears that
the latest date listed (on page 74r) for the end of the last 28-year cycle was
PLE (535), corresponding to the year 1847. Thus, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> was in constant use throughout the entire 18<sup>th</sup>
century and probably into the 19<sup>th</sup>. It is probable that the book was originally compiled during
the second half of the 17<sup>th</sup> century and originally incorporated an
early version of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>
whose almanac section began with the 1652-1679 series. With further research, it may be
possible to locate the precise edition used by the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
It is still unclear why a double designation was used for these years,
or what calendrical era began with the year 1312 (which would be year one of
the alphabetical series).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Once
again, I have used bold type to indicate (in the first three columns) those
instances where the summary does not match the text or illustrations found in
the perpetual almanac itself.
Here, we find a very poor correspondence between the. As before, I have also used bold type
to indicate those instances in the fourth column where the illustrations
contain anomalous elements.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
appearance of a representation of Jupiter in the center of the summary table
not easy to explain. Although it
corresponds to the material found in the almanac (which begins with Jupiter),
it does not correspond to the beginning of the cycle as found in the table
itself.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Beltrano’s
summary table goes around clockwise from 1720 through 1747, but the starting
point is at upper left, not at the top of the right side as in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>. The appearance of the Moon in the
center of the table makes very little sense, since the inscription below the
picture reads “Quest’Anno 1720, domina Venere, con il segno di Scorpione, e ci dà
l’Anno fertile di Vino, Oglio, Seta, Lino, ed ogn’altra cosa appartenente
all’annona” (“This year 1720, Venus being [its] ruler, with the sign of Scorpio,
and makes the year fertile in wine, oil, silk, linen, and everything else which
pertains to Annona”). Annona was a
goddess who personified the annual grain supply to Rome (Welch 2008). One would expect to see a portrayal of
Venus or Mars here (corresponding to the information given here and on p. 159
for the year 1720). Perhaps the
moon was used simply because of its general association with crops and
fertility. It may be worth noting
that Beltrano’s engraving of the moon here is surrounded by exactly 142 rays—I
couldn’t resist the temptation to count them!<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Beltrano’s
table contains one feature which is missing from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>:
the middle ring contains an abbreviation, describing each year as either
Fert. (Fertile), Ster. (Sterile), Med. (Medio [“average”]), or Mag. (Magro
[“meager”]). This was probably
omitted to allow room for the mysterious double row of dates.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It
is also very interesting that the table for 1720-1747 has been retained in this
edition of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
which is dated 1754!<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Finally,
something must be said of the correspondence between the 28-year cycles as they
are presented in the two almanacs.
When all the data have been tabulated, as above, it becomes evident that
in both cases, the choice of which planet to illustrate at the head of each
prognostication was rather haphazard:
sometimes it was the actual lord of the year; other times it was the
planet which ruled the sign which the lord of the year occupied. Several of the anomalies found in the
illustrations of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>
can be explained in this way. A
careful study of this tabulation reveals two things: first, the reason the summary table in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> (76v) does not correspond to the almanac
(60v-74r) is simply that the table is two years ahead—the year 1654 in the
table corresponds to the year 1652 in the almanac. When this adjustment is made, everything corresponds
perfectly. Why the writer made
this error (if that’s what it is) is inexplicable to me at this point. Second, the cycle which begins with
1720 in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>
corresponds to a cycle in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> beginning with the year 1666 (which, as we have just seen,
should be corrected to 1664). Both
these cycles begin with Venus as lord of the year, and once the two-year
correction is made to the summary table in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>, everything falls into place—since 1664 and 1720 are exactly 56
years (or two 28-year cycles) apart.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt; text-indent: -.5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">11. Illustration heading
the Perpetual Lunary (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">99v</i>)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt; text-indent: -.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt; text-indent: -.5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img alt="99v-100r" height="166" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image280.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_62" width="403" /></span><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 99v</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<img height="331" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image282.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_63" width="399" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 13</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Description and Interpretation<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This
page definitely corresponds to page 13 in Beltrano’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo,</i> as is demonstrated not only by the similarity
of their illustrations, but also by the fact that the Georgian chapter-heading
reads<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> tavi meocda tertmet’e mtvarit
sauk’unod burjebisa da mis xasiatis shet’q’oba </i>(“thirty-first chapter: perpetual observation of lunar signs
and phases”)—a description which closely matches the title given in the Italian
text. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Beltrano’s
“Lunario Perpetuo” is headed by an engraving of the sun and moon, both with
human faces. The sun’s face (on
the left) is surrounded by 12 flames (or, to be precise, by six triangles and
six flames), and exactly 180 rays.
Unlike the 142 rays I counted on page 185 (a number which doesn’t appear
to signify anything in particular and is probably a meaningless by-product of
the engraving process), this number 180 has great astrological
significance. It is exactly half
the number of degrees in the zodiac; and if the degrees are alternately
designated as “bright” and “dark,” as is sometimes done, then each pair of
degrees equates to a day and a night, so that there will be exactly 180 of
these pairs. It is difficult to
say whether this number of rays was created intentionally or not, but it is an
interesting possibility—especially since they fit into the larger matrix of the
12 flames, which are very likely intended to represent the 12 signs of the
zodiac. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
While the sun’s gaze appears to be
directed slightly to the left, the moon is looking toward the right. The left side of its face is framed by
a crescent (with three belts of shading—in the center and at both points); this
face and crescent are both surrounded by a larger circle which has deep shading
on the right side, tapering off toward the top and bottom, and three belts of
lighter shading on the left side.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The corresponding illustration in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> (99v) is of great
interest: like the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, it places the sun on
the left and the moon on the right, and both have faces. However, some mirror-reversals have
been done: both luminaries appear
to be directing their gaze toward the star-like object which has been inserted
between them, and the crescent now frames the right-hand side of the moon’s
face. Moreover, there is no larger
circle surrounding the crescent, but instead there is a larger circle
surrounding the sun and its rays—the reverse of the arrangement seen in
Beltrano’s illustration. The sun
is here surrounded by eight (not 12) flames, and there are five intervening
rays between each pair of flames, for a total of 40. There is a narrow band separating these flames and rays from
the larger circle which surrounds the sun’s face.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The most remarkable thing is the
strange star-like object which occupies the center of the illustration. It is a circle surrounded by six
concave curves which interlock to form a six-pointed star, deeply shaded around
the edges. It has some resemblance
to a fried egg. Just visible on
the right-hand side is a small point, something like the point of a tack or the
stem of a flower. What in the
world does this represent? Most
likely it is a star of some kind; the small point on the right may represent
the tail of a comet. The object
has a sort of organic appearance, and brings to mind some of the strange
botanical illustrations found in the Voynich Manuscript. In the context, however, it seems
obvious that this is a star or comet—but why has the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiroman’tia</i> inserted a star
between the sun and moon? It may
be an allusion to Genesis 1:16 (“And
God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser
light to rule the night: he made the stars also”). One possible ramification of this passage is a division of
astrological time into three fundamental intervals: day (when the sun is above the horizon); lunar night (when
the sun is below the horizon and the moon is above the horizon); and stellar
night (when both the sun and moon are below the horizon, thereby surrendering
their rulership to the stars).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
If, as seems quite likely, this object is intended to represent a
comet, then which comet was it?
There were no fewer than 25 comets during the 17<sup>th</sup> century,
including a number of famous ones:
1607 (Halley’s Comet), 1618 (three bright comets in that year), 1664,
1665, 1673, 1677, 1680, 1682 (return of Halley’s Comet), 1683; the comets of
1680 and 1682 were associated with the great conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn
in Leo (October 1682), where they were joined by Mars. This conjunction was heralded by a
solar eclipse (1 September 1682), which was visible throughout western Europe
(though not in the Caucasus).
These celestial phenomena were widely regarded as heralding the
apocalypse (Knight-Jadczyk 2008; Espenak and Meeus 2007), and they correspond
well with the probable date of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The most remarkable thing about this mysterious star or comet is that
the way the pictures are drawn, both the sun and the moon are looking toward
it! This strongly emphasizes the
star as an object of special importance.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
However
this illustration is to be interpreted, we have yet another striking example of
a mirror-reversal in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiroman’tia</i>
of elements from the corresponding illustrations in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
It
seems appropriate at this point to make mention of a phenomenon noted by Durkheim and Mauss (1963), though in
a somewhat different context: “we
regard certain mental operations as simple and elementary when they are really
very complex” (p. 3). The
distinction between left and right, especially the repeated distinction of left
and right (which involves the related operation of counting or enumeration), is
fundamental to our thinking on every level. Though apparently very simple matters, both counting and the
distinction between left and right are operations especially prone to error. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
This brings to mind a passage I once read by the
mathematician C. H. Hinton; I cannot lay hands on it at the moment, but the
gist of it was that Hinton decided at one point that rather than devoting
himself to abstract and difficult concepts, he ought to focus his thoughts on
what could be known for sure:
right and left, up and down, the fact that (for example) the position of
a certain red block within a structure was in the third layer from the bottom,
in the back row, fourth from the left.
It was by working from such a simple basis, of course, that Hinton
achieved such remarkable results in visualizing and describing a fourth
physical dimension. As Hinton wrote
in the essay, “Many Dimensions” (1885), “.
. . <a href="http://www.eldritchpress.org/chh/h4.html#g88"><span style="color: windowtext; text-decoration: none;">there</span></a>
is a no less important branch of self knowledge which seems altogether like a
research into the external world. In this we pass into a closer and closer
contemplation of material things and relations, till suddenly we find that what
we thought was certain and solid thought is really a vast and over-arching
crust, whose limitlessness to us was but our conformity to its limit—a shell
out of which and beyond which we may at any time pass” (¶78).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">12.
Crabs and Scorpions<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
When
I first obtained access to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>, one of the first things which caught my eye was the curious
representation of the crab (Cancer) on page 68r, with a head resembling a
crescent moon. For comparison, I
have assembled below all three depictions of the crab which are found in the
manuscript, along with the only corresponding illustration from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>. Notice how all of the crabs have nine
or ten legs and two claws (for a total of 11 or 12), and how the heads of the
other two crabs in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>
(71r and 73r) resemble the crescent moon to a lesser degree—71r in the shape of
its head, and 73r only in terms of its pincer-like mouth parts. Note also that the crab in 68r appears
to have a single eye, while the others have two.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
CRABS<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="136" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image284.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_196" width="147" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img border="0" height="131" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image286.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_64" width="164" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 68r <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 73r <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="138" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image288.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_197" width="155" /><img border="0" height="149" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image290.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_65" width="157" /> <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 71r <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 244<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
CANCER GLYPHS<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Throughout <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
the Cancer glyph is drawn in the conventional western style, as in these
examples:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="87" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image292.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_200" width="56" /><img align="left" height="87" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image294.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_199" width="63" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="64" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image296.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_198" width="93" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia, 47r Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia, 46v Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia, 109r<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
SCORPIO GLYPHS<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, the Scorpio
glyphs are always drawn naturalistically, in contrast to the more abstract
western version, as exhibited in these examples from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img border="0" height="37" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image298.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_66" width="63" /> <img border="0" height="37" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image300.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_67" width="28" /> <img border="0" height="33" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image302.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_68" width="46" /> <img border="0" height="37" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image304.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_69" width="63" /> <img border="0" height="39" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image306.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_70" width="66" /> <img border="0" height="38" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image308.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_71" width="44" /> <img border="0" height="39" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image310.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_72" width="66" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">A.P. 136 A.P.
139 A.P. 140 A.P. 141 A.P.
141 A.P.
142 A.P. 136</span></i><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="80" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image312.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_202" width="80" /><img align="left" height="84" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image314.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_201" width="71" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="74" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image316.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_210" width="97" /><img align="left" height="72" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image318.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_223" width="80" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">S.X., 46r S.X.,
46v S.X.,
47r S.X.,
103v<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="62" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image320.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_227" width="118" /><img align="left" height="62" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image322.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_217" width="51" /><img align="left" height="60" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image324.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_226" width="63" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="59" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image326.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_225" width="76" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 10pt;">S.X., 104r S.X.,
109r S.X.,
111v S.X.,
121v<o:p></o:p></span></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
As
seen above, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>
also uses a naturalistic Scorpio glyph from time to time; indeed, both versions
appear on the same page (136).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
SCORPIONS<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
five depictions of the scorpion (Scorpio) found in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromanti’ia</i> are assembled below, along with their
counterpart from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="121" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image328.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_120" width="103" /><img alt="66v-67r" border="0" height="112" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image330.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_73" width="161" /> <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 67r <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 62v<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="142" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image332.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_121" width="137" /><img border="0" height="142" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image334.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_74" width="132" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 68v <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 71v<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="137" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image336.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_148" width="164" /><img border="0" height="161" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image338.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_75" width="128" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 73v <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, p. 159<o:p></o:p></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
In <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>, the scorpions have round heads. Three of them are one-eyed, and two of them have two eyes
and lack mouths. Observe how the
scorpions from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>
have varying numbers of legs (in contrast to the crabs, which have nine or ten
legs), and that there are usually more legs on one side than on the other;
while in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, both
the Scorpio glyph and the scorpion depicted on page 159 have eight legs (four
on each side). Also note how the
scorpions in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> hve
two-pronged stings which closely resemble their front claws (yet the scorpion
on 68v has a fish-tail instead, like those of the crabs).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
distinguishing features of crabs and scorpions in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> may be summarized as follows:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <u>head</u> <u>eyes</u> <u>claws</u> <u>legs</u> <u>tail</u><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Crabs: 2-pronged 2
(or 1) 2 10
(or 9) fish-tail<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Scorpions: round 1
(or 2) 2 variable 2-pronged<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> sting<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Let
us see how well these conclusions hold up against a comparison to the
depictions of crabs and scorpions available from the materials already
assembled, along with a few additional examples:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
SCORPIONS: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<img align="left" height="75" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image340.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_251" width="94" /> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img border="0" height="74" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image342.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_76" width="77" /> <img border="0" height="73" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image344.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_77" width="76" /> <img border="0" height="75" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image346.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_78" width="72" /> <img border="0" height="77" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image348.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_79" width="75" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Bruno
1582
Bruno 1591 15<sup>th</sup>
century Italian
Beham
Warnock woodcut<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img border="0" height="130" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image350.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_80" width="129" /> <img border="0" height="130" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image352.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_81" width="148" /> <img border="0" height="56" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image354.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_82" width="144" /><o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Voynich
MS, 73r (this little Roman
mosaic (3<sup>rd</sup> century) Otranto
Cathedral (1160s)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">monster
is entirely unique!) (Sacred
Destinations 2008) (Fletcher
2008)</span><span style="color: green;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: green;"><img border="0" height="109" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image356.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_83" width="152" /></span><span style="color: green;"> <img border="0" height="113" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image358.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_84" width="105" /> <img border="0" height="114" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image360.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_85" width="168" /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Palermo
Cathedral (1185) mediaeval
representation Hevelius,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Uranographia</i> (1690)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">(Joy
of Shards 2008) of
Scorpio (C. Warnock)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="109" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image362.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_254" width="96" /><img align="left" height="99" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image364.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_252" width="108" /> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="82" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image366.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_255" width="70" /><img align="left" height="81" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image368.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_253" width="67" /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">E.
Sibly, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Occult Sciences</i> (1806) Scorpio
from Nabataean 16<sup>th</sup>
century woodcut 6<sup>th</sup> century
mosaic<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> zodiac
(2<sup>nd</sup> century) (Thelemapedia.org) from
synagogue <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (Nabataea.net) at
Beit Alpha<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="Default">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> Based
on these examples, it appears that the representation of Scorpio is fairly
straightforward: a crustacean with
prominent claws and a prominent stinging tail. Indeed, these are the characteristic features of the
constellation of Scorpio, which is very easy to locate in the night sky: the claws being defined by the stars
Graffias (Beta Scorpii) and Iclil (Pi Scorpii), with their extensions into Libra
ending in Zubeneschamali (Beta Librae, “the northern claw”) and Zubenelgenubi
(Alpha Librae, “the southern claw”); and the scorpion’s sting being defined by
the familiar “cat’s eyes”—Shaula (Lambda Scorpii) and Lesath (Ypsilon
Scorpii). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="Default" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">These defining features are evident even in such
bizarre representations as those from Otranto Cathedral (which, like many of
the Scorpio glyphs in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
looks more like a centipede), Palermo Cathedral (which resembles a spider), and
the mediaeval version provided by Warnock (a lizard with six legs). Such strange variants probably arose in
places where scorpions were unfamiliar.
This lack of familiarity with actual scorpions sometimes resulted in “a</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';"> distinctively freaky creature that
usually bears only slight resemblance to the real thing: a fat body, a
human-like face on a round head and several curls in its tail” (Sacred
Destinations 2008:¶24), like the creature which appears above in the 3<sup>rd</sup>
century Roman mosaic. This
description also applies fairly well to the strange round-headed scorpions depicted
in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiroman’tia</i>. This is hard to explain in light of the
presence of scorpions in the Caucasus; according to the U.S. Army publication,
“A Soldier’s Guide to Staying Healthy in the Republic of Georgia” (2008), “</span><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman';">Several species
of scorpions and spiders, some with potentially fatal venom, are present
throughout the region” (¶18). The
scorpion portrayed in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i> looks much more like the real thing.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
CRABS:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="68" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image370.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_235" width="83" /><img align="left" height="74" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image372.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_236" width="87" /><img align="left" height="77" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image374.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_240" width="72" /><span style="color: green;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: green;"> </span><img align="left" height="74" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image376.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_241" width="75" /><span style="color: green;">
</span><img align="left" height="75" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image378.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_239" width="73" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Bruno
1582
Bruno 1591 15<sup>th</sup>
century Italian
Beham
Warnock woodcut<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="104" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image380.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_243" width="121" /><img align="left" height="116" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image382.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_242" width="187" /><img align="left" height="124" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image384.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_244" width="113" /><span style="color: green;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Voynich
MS, 71v Canterbury
Cathedral (early 13<sup>th</sup> century) Otranto
Cathedral (1160s)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (Sacred
Destinations 2008) (Fletcher
2008)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: green;"><img border="0" height="72" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image386.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_86" width="126" /></span><span style="color: green;"> <img border="0" height="85" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image388.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_87" width="97" /> <img border="0" height="95" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image390.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_88" width="83" /> <img border="0" height="88" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image392.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_89" width="83" /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Palermo
Cathedral (1185) Villa
Farnese ceiling (1575)
Hevelius, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Uranographia </i>N. Convers,<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Tarot</i><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">(Joy
of Shards 2008) (Filipas
2001) (1690)
(Filipas 2001) <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">de Marseilles</i> (1760)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> (Filipas
2001)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<img align="left" height="80" hspace="9" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image394.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_256" width="66" /><span style="color: green;"><img border="0" height="107" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image396.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_90" width="96" /></span><span style="color: green;">
<img border="0" height="105" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image398.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_91" width="100" /> <img border="0" height="70" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image400.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_92" width="110" /><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">E.
Sibly, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Occult Sciences</i> (1806) Cancer
from Nabataean 16<sup>th</sup>
century woodcut 6<sup>th</sup> century
mosaic<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">zodiac (2<sup>nd</sup>
century) (Thelemapedia.org) from
synagogue <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">(Nabataea.net) of
Beit Alpha<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This
assemblage of crabs demonstrates a great variation in the understanding of what
a crab is—some of these (lacking tails entirely) are obviously crabs, while
others are not crabs but lobsters or crayfish. Some of them (e.g. Sibly 1806) resemble ticks! Cancer, as he appears in these representations,
is “rarely a realistic depiction of a crab; sometimes [it] looks just like a lobster
and other times like a mythical monster with many legs. Sometimes [it] even has
a curly tail like Scorpio” (Sacred Destinations 2008:¶16).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It
appears that most commonly the sign of Cancer was symbolized by a lobster, and
its characteristic feature is a fish-like tail. This has been noted by one student of the Voynich Manuscript
(Robert 1993), who notes that in France, lobsters were more familiar than
crabs. The Voynich manuscript’s
illustration for Cancer is especially interesting because it depicts <u>two</u>
lobsters (or crayfish) facing in opposite directions—a representation which may
be compared to the familiar Cancer glyph.
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><img border="0" height="277" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image402.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_93" width="136" /></span> <span style="font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Cancer
and Scorpius (16<sup>th</sup> century woodcut)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
two animals are depicted side by side in this 16<sup>th</sup> century woodcut,
which is fairly representative of how the differences between them were
commonly understood: both have a
pair of claws, and multiple legs; Cancer has a fish-like tail, while Scorpio
has a curling tail with a prominent sting; Scorpio is practically headless, while
Cancer’s head is elongated. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In
light of all the above, we may revise our table of comparisons as follows:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <u>head</u> <u>eyes</u> <u>claws</u> <u>legs</u> <u>tail</u><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Crabs: variable variable 2 variable fish-tail
or<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> no
tail<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Scorpions: variable variable 2 variable curling
tail<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> with
sting<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 10pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
This
result is brings to mind Saussure’s concept of language as “a system of
relationships between elements defined only by their differences” (Preucel
2006:42). As the pool of available
data became larger, it turned out that the only certain means of distinguishing
a crab from a scorpion was through the differences in their tails. The other distinctions tabulated
earlier (involving heads and eyes) had some validity in the limited context of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> itself, but were
obliterated as more data were gathered. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Although there is clearly grading
within the two categories, Cancer and Scorpio are of the same taxonomic rank
within the domain of the 12 signs of the zodiac and must be distinguished in
terms of a taxonomic model.
Despite the great variation in how the animals are portrayed and the
difficulty of identifying a prototype, Cancer and Scorpio can always be
identified and distinguished from each other in those representations (such as
the zodiacal wheel) which include them both. “The distinctive features of a category are those features
necessary and sufficient to distinguish a member of that category from members
of all other categories” (Kempton 1981:15).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
I have been able to find no
precedent at all for the interesting crab with the crescent-shaped head (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, 68r) which first
attracted my attention. This
highly original variant was probably intended to suggest a crescent moon, since
the moon rules the sign of Cancer.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">A System of Errors?<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Beltrano (or this edition of him, anyway) perpetrates so
many egregious errors as to excite feelings of revulsion, and to render much of
his almanac useless to those unable to detect the errors and make the necessary
adjustments. This suggests the necessity,
as I proceed with this research, of examining all known editions of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>—could it be that
these errors are deliberate and have their origin in the first edition? Could these systematic errors be an
encoded disclosure of discoveries which were never made public? If this is the
case, and the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i> understood the secret, it might well explain his extravagant
praise of Beltrano on page 30r. It
might also have some bearing on the very mysterious references to satellites of
Mars and Venus on pages 4r and 4v—statements which parallel mysterious
near-contemporary references in Swift and Voltaire (Simonia, 2000). The two small satellites of Mars are
mentioned in a passage in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gulliver’s
Travels</i> (1726), where information is given about their size and orbit; yet
they were not discovered until 1877.
Venus, of course, has no known satellites. Could it be that Beltrano, or someone in his circle, had
built a large reflecting telescope, but chose not to make his discoveries known
to the public? Or were these
discoveries achieved through some other means, as yet unknown? Two
planets, two mirrors, two books; Dr. Dee and Mr. Kelley.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Even if Beltrano’s errors are
unintentional, there is reason to believe that the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> has repeatedly and
deliberately changed, reversed, and distorted what he found in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>, especially its
illustrations. This clever idea of
concealing a message within a constellation of errors may have originated with the
Georgian writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
and may have nothing at all to do with Beltrano. In any case, I suspect that
mirrors had something to do with it; it might even be useful to start examining
some of the pages as they appear in a mirror!</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Another very interesting feature of
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>, which I have not
touched on in the present paper, is the presence of an inexplicable series of
consecutive numbers which appear here and there in the margins of the
text. There is every reason to
believe that this manuscript will reward continued study.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u>Syllabus Errorum<o:p></o:p></u></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In
light of all that has been said about the strange distortions and reversals
which characterize the use of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco
Perpetuo</i> by the writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo
Xiromant’ia</i>, it may prove useful at this point to summarize them:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">1. Hand diagram<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
p. 236</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. LEFT HAND</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Base of ring finger (on left): Sun
glyph</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. Base of little finger (on right): Mercury
glyph</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
10v</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. RIGHT HAND</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Base of little finger (on left): <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mzis mta</i> (mountain of the Sun)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. Base of ring finger (on right): <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ot’aridis mta</i> (mountain of Mercury)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">[This involves both an
error (designations incorrectly reversed) and a mirror reversal. Indeed, it entails two mirror
reversals, one inside the other—capisci?]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">2. Eclipse diagram<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
p. 58</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Sun at top, has one face</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Solar eclipse</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. One moon</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
30r</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Sun at bottom, has two faces</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Lunar eclipse (probably)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. Two moons</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">[A top-bottom
reversal, with a further suggestion of mirrors (gemination of objects to either
side of bisecting lines)]</i><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
3. Series of Eclipses<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
pp. 59-64</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. 15 moons</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. 2 total eclipses, 13 partial eclipses</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. 9 partial eclipses shaded from bottom, 4 from top</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
31r-35r</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. 20 moons</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. 4 total eclipses, 16 partial eclipses</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. All 16 partial eclipses shaded from bottom</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">4. Geocentric Cosmogram<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
p. 452</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. 24 stars</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Circle divided into 12 signs of the zodiac, labeled with
their glyphs</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
36v</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. 31 stars (and three invisible stars)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Signs of the zodiac do not appear</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">5. Major Aspects<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
p. 139</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Counterclockwise, Taurus on Ascendant</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
46v</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Clockwise, Capricorn on Ascendant</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">[The zodiac has been
reversed, and shifted counterclockwise 120º]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">6. Sextiles<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
p. 140</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Counterclockwise, Cancer on Ascendant</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
47r</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Counterclockwise, Taurus on Ascendant</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">[Counterclockwise
shift of 60º]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">7. Oppositions<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
p. 142</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Counterclockwise, Aries on Ascendant</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
47v</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Counterclockwise, Cancer on Ascendant</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">[Clockwise shift of
90º]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">8. Table of Houses<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
48v</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The nonsense word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">asch’t’ich’ani</i>
has been substituted for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">martaba</i>
(degree).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">9. Horoscope for Summer Ingress (21 June
1635)<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
58v-59r</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Cusp of 7<sup>th</sup>
house is given as 17 Leo 36 on 58v, but written as 17 Leo 03 on 59r</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Moon
position given as “3 300 Virgo 46” [for 3 Virgo 46 or 23 Virgo 31?]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. Date of
T’NIV (366) should read T’K’G (323) to correspond to the year 1635—as written,
it would assign the horoscope to 1678, which is 43 years too late.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
d. Month given
is August (should be June)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
e. Day given is
the 11<sup>th</sup> (should be the 21<sup>st</sup>)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
f. Number 41
given for Midheaven—this is incomprehensible to me.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
g. Mysterious
object at 11 Aries 07 (unless it is the Pars Fortunae at 11 Taurus 07)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
h. Mars
position given as 28 Gemini 11 (for 18 Gemini 11)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">10. Perpetual Almanac<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
pp. 159-203</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Date of spring equinox given correctly as 21 March
(throughout)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
60v-74r</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Date of spring equinox given incorrectly as 11 March
(throughout; cf. 9e, above)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">11. Jupiter<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
p. 161</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Pisces on left, Sagittarius on right (correct)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
66v</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Aries on left, Sagittarius on right (incorrect)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">12. Sun<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
pp. 166, 178</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Scepter in right hand</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
61v, 64v, 70v</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Scepter in left hand</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">[The third mirror
reversal, done three times over]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">13. Mars<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
pp. 159, 171, 181</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Comet on left, Mars glyph on right</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Sword in right hand</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. Scorpio on left, Taurus on right (labeled “Ariete”)—label
is correct, picture incorrect</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
62v</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Mars glyph on left, star on right</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Sword in left hand</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. Aries on left, Scorpio on right (correct)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
68v</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Mars glyph on left, star on right</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Sword in left hand</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. Aries on left, Scorpio on right (correct)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
73v</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Mars glyph on left, star on right</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Sword in left hand</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. Taurus on left, Scorpio on right (incorrect, but follows <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">[Three more mirror
reversals, done three times over]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">14. Moon<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
p. 167</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Simple crescent moon on left, horns pointing inward;
Crescent moon on right with face in
shaded portion, horns pointing inward</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Left hand points to moon with face</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. Right hand holds a torch (?)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
68r, 71r, 73r</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Crescent moon on left with face in shaded portion, horns
pointing inward; Simple crescent
moon on right, horns pointing inward</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Left hand
rests in lap</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. Right hand
holds an arrow</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">[Another mirror
reversal, done three times over]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">15. Mercury<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
pp. 163, 172, 180</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Caduceus in right hand</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Mercury glyph at upper right</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. Virgo on left, Gemini on right (correct)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
71v</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Caduceus in left hand</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Mercury glyph at upper left</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. Virgo on left, Scorpio on right (incorrect)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
74r</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Caduceus in left hand</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Mercury glyph at upper left</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. Sagittarius on left, Gemini on right (incorrect)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">[Another mirror
reversal, done twice]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">16. Venus<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
p. 164</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Mirror in right hand</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Star on left, Venus glyph on right</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
69v, 72r</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Mirror in left hand</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Venus glyph on left, star on right</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">[Two mirror reversals,
done twice]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">17. Saturn<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
p. 165</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Capricorn on left, Aquarius on right (correct)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
70r</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Capricorn on left, Taurus on right (incorrect)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">18. Synopsis of the Perpetual Almanac<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
p. 185</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Moon appears in center of table</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Sequence begins at top left corner, clockwise</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
76v</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Jupiter appears in center of table</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Sequence begins at top right corner, clockwise</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. Synopsis has been erroneously advanced ahead of almanac
by two years</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">19. Illustration heading the Perpetual
Lunary<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almanacco Perpetuo</i>,
p. 13</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Sun on left, gazing toward the left</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Moon on right, gazing toward the right</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i>,
99v</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
a. Sun on left, gazing toward the right</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
b. Moon on right, gazing toward the left</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
c. Six-pointed star has been inserted between sun and moon</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">[Two mirror reversals,
one to either side of the insertion.
This amounts to 25 mirror reversals, if duplicate images are counted (or
12, if duplicates are not counted).
There are 15 different images whch entail mirror reversals (or seven, if
duplicates are not counted)]<o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 12pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
Vakhushti <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
2008 In
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</i>.
Retrieved 23 June 2008 from
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vakhushti_Bagrationi<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Warnock, Christopher<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2001 “The
Planets in Renaissance Astrology.”
Retrieved 10 June 2008 from <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
http://www.renaissanceastrology.com/planets.html<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Welch, Bill<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2008 “Ceres,
Annona and the Corn Supply to Rome.”
Retrieved 7 July 2008 from
http://www.forumancientcoins.com/moonmoth/reverse_corn.html<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Zodiac<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2005 Thelemapedia:
The Encyclopedia of Thelema and Magick.
Retrieved<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
9
July 2008 from http://www.thelemapedia.org/index.php/Zodiac<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-right: -.5in; tab-stops: 263.0pt;">
<img border="0" height="650" src="file://localhost/Users/timothyg/Library/Caches/TemporaryItems/msoclip/0clip_image404.png" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_94" width="452" /><span style="font-size: 10pt;">13</span><o:p></o:p></div>Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-70685559363544977002012-01-27T19:06:00.000-08:002012-01-27T19:06:14.952-08:00The Man Who Used to Swear by the Prince of the Dead (2008)<!--StartFragment-->
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The Man Who Used to
Swear by the Prince of the Dead: Structural analysis of an Abkhaz folk-tale<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">As a certain person
was proceeding along the road, he came across someone else.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Half of the person he met was silver,
his other half was gold.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The one
who was half-silver, half-gold (</i>зыбжa рa<span style="font-family: "Lucida Grande";">ӡ</span>ныз
зыбжa хьыз [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">zәb</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Lucida Grande";">ӡ</span>ә radznәz zәb</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Lucida Grande";">ӡ</span>ә
xyәz</i>])<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica-Bold; font-size: 13.0pt;"> </span></b><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">spoke
up and said:<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“You
are not to be afraid of me!”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“Why
should I be scared of you?”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>said
the other.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“By
what do you swear?”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>asked the one
whose half was silver and whose other half was gold.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“I
swear by the Prince of the Dead (</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.5pt;">А</span><span style="font-family: "Lucida Grande";">ҧ</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.5pt;">сцәа</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">ҳ</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.5pt;">а [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a</i></span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p<sup>h</sup>sts<sup>h</sup>waha</i>])<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">,” said the other.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“Why?”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>asked the one who is half-silver.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“Because
God created me and set me upon the earth, but the Prince of the Dead is the one
in whose hands my soul lies; when he desires it, he’ll carry me off.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That’s why I swear by the Prince of the
Dead,” said the other.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“If
that’s so, just plant your walking-stick here,” said the one who was
half-silver.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The other one stuck
his stick in the ground.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“When
the shadow of this stick of yours reaches this far tomorrow, come here, and I
too shall come,” said the one who was half-silver.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
next day both of them came to the spot.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“Wherever you see me, you’ll recognize me without mistaking me for
another, won’t you?”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>asked the one
who was half-silver.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“Of
course I’m going to recognize you; even if you’re in amongst a lot of others, I
won’t mistake you,” said the other.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“Here,
take this!”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>he said and handed him
a mirror, it too half-silver, half-gold.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“Put this in your armpit and keep it there; shew it to no-one.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I go wherever there is a sick person,
but apart from you no-one will see me—you too make it your habit to go
there.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When I arrive, if I’m
taking my seat towards the sick person’s feet, that person is not going to die;
if I’m taking my seat towards his head, he is going to die.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>You give yourself the title of ‘Healer
of the Sick.’<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Tell those by whose
feet I’m taking my seat—after all, such a one is not going to die—that you’ll
heal him; at the place of one towards whose head I’m taking my seat tell them
that you can do nothing for this illness; in that way you’ll make a good
profit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I am the Prince of the
Dead by whom you swear.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>You are to
last 100 years!” he said and left.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">This
chap, as the prince of the dead told him, would pay a visit every time that
someone was ill.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Whenever he
looked in his mirror, he could see where the Prince of the Dead was taking his
seat.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If he sat down by the sick
person’s feet, he would start pretending to make some medicines for him,
saying:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“I’ll cure this one”; and
of course, he wouldn’t die; when anyone got better, he would take quite a lot
from them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In that way he became
very rich.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Continuing
in that way, he fell ill when he became 100.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When he fell ill, the Prince of the Dead came and promptly
sat down at his head.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The ill man
promptly lifted up his pillow, turned round the other way and lay down pointing
his feet in the direction of the Prince of the Dead.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“What
are you doing?—I sat down at your head, and you pointed your feet in my
direction!”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>said the Prince of the
Dead.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“The
reason why I’m doing this, Prince of the dead, in all honesty, is that I don’t
want to die yet; I beseech you—give me a further 100 years!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I’m a poor thing, after all aren’t I?!”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>said the sick person.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">“Fine,
have a further 100 years, since you have been swearing by me.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But when your age is 200, you’re to
become such as no man has ever seen!” was the curse he laid upon him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What he meant was:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“When he becomes 200 years old, let him
become a frog!”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">And
thus did it happen with him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When
he became 200, he turned into a frog and</i> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">with floppy step moved over the land</i> (Hewitt, 2005: 142-150).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Analysis<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>For
this project, I have attempted to do a structural analysis of a folktale, based
on the principles presented by Claude Levi-Strauss.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I have chosen this Abkhazian folktale for two reasons:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>first, because it originated in the
Caucasus, which is the geographical focus of my dissertation; second, because
it is a highly unusual story and contains a number of elements (mirrors,
chthonic beings) which interest me.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As
Ferdinand de Saussure and Roman Jacobson have suggested, binary oppositions are
a central feature of language, and are perhaps even fundamental to the human
thought process (A. Berger, 1999: 41).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The most striking feature of this story is its use of binary
oppositions, which I have listed and placed in two columns, as follows:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
point A<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>point
B<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[the
road]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“a certain person”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“someone
else”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“half of the person”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“his
other half”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[dividing
line]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“half silver”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“half
gold”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[dividing
line]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(left half)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>(right
half)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[dividing
line]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“God”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“the
Prince of the Dead”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“set me upon the earth” (birth)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“he’ll
carry me off” (death)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
top of walking-stick (above earth)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>bottom
of walking-stick (below the earth)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
sunlight<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>shadow<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[the
walking stick]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“this stick”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“shadow
of this stick”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“come here”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“I
too shall come”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[the
walking-stick]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(first day)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“the
next day”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[night]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(objects)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>(reflections)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[mirror]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(silver half of mirror)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>(gold
half of mirror)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[dividing
line]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(silver/gold man)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>(silver/gold
mirror)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
armpit (darkness)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>out
of armpit (light)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(what others see)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>(what
appears in the mirror)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(see)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>(not
see)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(lying down)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>(sitting)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“towards the sick person’s feet”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“towards
his head”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“going to die”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“not
going to die”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(honesty)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>(pretense)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(pronouncing the case hopeless)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“pretending
to make some medicines”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
“100 years”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“a
further 100 years”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[illness,
return of the<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>=
“200 years”<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Prince
of the Dead]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
reward<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>curse<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[act
of trickery]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
man<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>frog</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
mortal life<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>eternal
life as a frog<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>[100-year
extension]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
(what is commonly seen)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“such
as no man has ever seen”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
death<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>transformation
into a frog</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
those cases where a “mediating third” can be identified, I have entered that in
a third column.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These include some
striking parallels:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the mirror
mediates between objects and their reflections, while at the same time objects
mediate between their visible appearance and their shadows.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The whole story is replete with these
bipartite, mirror-image structures—even the 200 years are divided into two
periods of 100 years by the return of the Prince of the Dead.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Now
a few other observations:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>notice
how all the action of this story<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>takes place in liminal zones (the road, the sickroom).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Also, notice that the story does not
specify how the “half silver” and “half gold” are distributed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Based on such details as the planting
of the walking-stick in the ground and the profound contrast drawn between the
head and the feet of the sick person, it would be logical to assume that the
man was divided in half at the waist.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, Abkhaz people always go about fully clad (high boots, leggings,
long coats), so no part of the body below the waist would normally be
visible.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For this reason, we must
assume that the man is divided into two halves laterally.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This creates a new binary opposition
between left and right.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From the
context it is not possible to determine whether the silver half is on the left
and the gold half on the right, or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">vice
versa</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, silver is
always mentioned first, followed by gold—and three times the stranger is
described in an abbreviated form as “the one who was half silver” (зыбжa рa<span style="font-family: "Lucida Grande";">ӡ</span>ныз [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">zәb</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Lucida Grande";">ӡ</span>ә radznәz</i>]) It is tempting to associate the two
precious metals with the Moon and Sun, respectively.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If this is done, we may surmise the reason:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>traditional Abkhaz culture was
matriarchal; women went to war alongside men, and the Moon was esteemed as a
female entity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In fact, the
“Amazons” of Greek legend very likely take their name from the Northwest
Caucasian root –MZ-, meaning “Moon” (vocalized in Abkhaz as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">amza</i>) (this is an original observation,
but it has also been noted by John Colorusso, 2002).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I do not know, however, what significance right and left
hold for the Abkhaz, or how silver and gold would be associated with them.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
man’s stratagem of re-orienting himself with respect to the head and foot of
the bed is clearly related to the motifs of mirror-images, and left and right.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Who is this mysterious person, this
“someone else”?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Prince of the
Dead is presented as a counterpart to God, and he is clearly a chthonic
being—the dead are buried in the ground, and the walking-stick is also planted
in the ground.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Moreover, he is
strongly associated with precious metals (silver and gold), and is able to
confer wealth on those who honor him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The mirror, too, is half silver, half gold (presumably its left and
right halves, like the Prince of the Dead), and so it may be said to represent
him in microcosm.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He is associated
with darkness and the unseen (the shadow, the armpit, “no one will see me”), as
well as with sickness and death.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Notice
how the Prince of the Dead specifies the time of their second meeting: “when
the shadow of this stick of yours reaches this far tomorrow.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The comings and goings of this
mysterious being are synchronized with the motions of the heavens.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because of the daily advance of the Sun
along the ecliptic and seasonal shift of the ecliptic in relation to the
earth’s axis, the return of a shadow to its position of the previous day will
occur somewhat earlier or later; in the Caucasus, this shift for one day varies
between 9.15 seconds around the summer solstice to 30.04 seconds around the
winter solstice.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This corresponds
to an idea which is pervasive in astrology—that spirits associated with
specific subdivisions of the ecliptic circle (especially those associated with
the decanates [10º segments of the ecliptic]) will manifest themselves only at
specific times, which are astrologically determined. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It
is only on their second meeting that the Prince of the Dead makes his dramatic
self-disclosure, and in the same moment rewards his devotee with 100 years of
life.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Mirrors are associated with the
spirit-world in many cultures, including our own (it was formerly customary,
when someone died in a house, to cover the mirrors; and then there is the story
of how, shortly after his death in 1969, Brian Jones appeared to Marianne
Faithfull in a mirror).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In this story, the left-right
division of the mirror into gold and silver halves is suggestive of two
mirrors; such an arrangement will result in a divided image.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
This mirror is especially
interesting in that it has two contrasting halves, and because it must be kept
in darkness.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zohar</i> makes several references to “the
mirror that does not reflect” (cf. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bereshis</i>
A 2:17, “the fourth is the chamber of prophecy of the shining mirror <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">aspaqlarya
de-nahara</i>)</span>; the fifth is the chamber of prophecy of the opaque
mirror <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 18.0pt;">(<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">aspaqlarya de-la nahara</i>)”; </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pekudei</i> 26:4, “We learned that the mirror which does not shine
showed him within it all the wheels and shapes made below, like a mirror
reflecting within itself every image”; <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pinchas</i>
44:31, “this is the mirror that does not shine, being made up of 365 lights,
corresponding to the numerical value of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">yeshenah</i>
[sleep]”) (Kabbalah Centre International, Inc., 2004).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In western occultism, “black mirrors”
are commonly used for scrying (C. Puzuzu, 2005), and the practice has attained
some degree of respectability through the work of Dr. Raymond Moody, whose
“psychomanteum” (a darkened chamber containing a mirror) is used as a
therapeutic device by bereaved persons to contact the dead (Paranormal Insider,
2008).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While there is little
likelihood of direct influence one way or the other, it seems probable that the
Jewish and western European use of the dark mirror and that described in this
Abkhaz folktale are comparable manifestations of some very ancient beliefs and
practices. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
There may be some parallel between
this half-silver, half-gold mirror and the illustrations found on pages of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet’lo Xiromant’ia</i> (discussed in my
larger paper), where figures representing Venus and Saturn are portrayed on
facing pages, each holding a mirror in the left hand—an arrangement suggestive
of the shining and opaque mirrors just mentioned, especially in light of the
planetary associations involved.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
There is quite a bit of evidence
connecting the Northwest Caucasian peoples to the Neolithic remains <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">discovered at </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Çatalhöyük
(ca.7500 B.C.), including obsidian mirrors (ApilSin 2003).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If this association is valid, it
demonstrates the great importance these people attached to mirrors, even at a
very early date.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It will be
remembered, too, that Dr. John Dee received many of his angelic visitations
through the agency of an obsidian scrying-mirror.</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Helvetica-Bold; font-size: 13.0pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
association of the Prince of the Dead with the sickbed may also have its origin
in the </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Çatalhöyük
culture, since “</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">they
buried their dead under the beds. The remains of women and children interred
under the woman's bed and the remains of men under the man's” (ApilSin
2003:¶11).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Thus, the Prince of the Dead (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">(</i><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.5pt;">А</span><span style="font-family: "Lucida Grande";">ҧ</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.5pt;">сцәа</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">ҳ</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.5pt;">а) remains a complex and puzzling
entity—a being who comes through the looking-glass, who slips in between the
moments traced by the sundial, or comes up from under the bed.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
strange conclusion of the story may reflect a folk-belief among the Northwest
Caucasians that frogs were actually aged men.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, it appears that the power of the Prince of the Dead
was limited—he could confer years of life, but only at the price of becoming
“such as no man has ever seen.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It
is hard to say whether it would be better to pay the debt of nature or to live
on as a frog!</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>This
part of the story may be an allusion to the fabled longevity of people in the
Caucasus.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The phrase “such as no
man has ever seen” may be seen as a mediating third in relation to several
similar expressions which appear earlier in the story:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“wherever you see me”; “apart from you
no-one will see me.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Indeed, a
very <span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">common Abkhaz greeting is
“good to see you” (</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 14.5pt;">Бзиара убааит [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bzyara
wbaayt</i>]).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Much
more could be said, no doubt.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
folklore of the North Caucasus is of great interest to Historical Anthropology
because although the Abkhaz and related peoples have lived in proximity to the
Kartvelian and Indo-European peoples for many millennia, they are completely
different in origin, and their culture is built upon an entirely different
foundation.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times; font-size: 12.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Times; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Bibliography</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
ApilSin, Apiladey</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>2003<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 24.0pt;">The
Proto-Hattians or Proto-Hattites.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Retrieved 10 July 2008 from </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-font-size: 16.0pt;">http://www.ancientsites.com/aw/Post/124385&authorid=802<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Berger, Arthur Asa</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
1999<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Signs in Contemporary Culture:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>An Introduction to Semiotics</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>2d<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>edition.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Salem, Wisconsin:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Sheffield Publishing Company.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Colarusso, John</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
2002<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nart Sagas from the Caucasus: Myths and
Legends from the<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Circassians,
Abazas, Abkhaz, and Ubykhs</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Princeton University Press.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Hewitt, George</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
2005<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Abkhazian Folktales</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Lincom Europa, 2005, </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">Kabbalah Centre
International, Inc.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>2004<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Zohar:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the most powerful spiritual tool</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 13.0pt;">http://www.kabbalah.com<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Paranormal Insider</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
2008<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“Psychomanteum:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mirror-Gazing for the Dead.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Retrieved 17 May 2008<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>from
http://paranormalinsider.com/2008/01/psychomanteum<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>_mirrorgazing_for.php</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Puzuzu, C.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: -.5in;">
2005 <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>“Black
Mirrors.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Retrieved 15 September
2006 from </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
http://www.spellsandmagic.com/Black_Mirrors.html
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 16.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<!--EndFragment-->Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-30475481996996819282012-01-27T19:02:00.001-08:002012-01-28T21:22:06.621-08:00Kmnulebis Codnis C'igni (2007)<!--StartFragment-->
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman";">The
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Kmnulebis
Codnis C'igni </span></i><span style="color: black;">of Vakhtang VI (1721) <o:p></o:p></span></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman";">and its Place in the Astrological Tradition <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in;">
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Timothy P. Grove, Biola University<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>International
Conference in Honor of the 90<sup>th</sup> Anniversary <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.5in; text-indent: .5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>of Elene
Metreveli<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>National Centre of Manuscripts<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Tbilisi, Republic of Georgia <o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: "Times New Roman";"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>14
December 2007<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Kmnulebis codnis c'igni </span></i><span style="color: black;">was
a treatise on astronomy published by Vakht’ang VI in 1721. It was one of only 17 titles printed on
the press brought from Rumania by Mihail Isvanovici (known in Georgia as
Mikheil St’epaneshvili). This was facilitated by Anthim Iverieli [Anthim the
Iberian], a Georgian who served as Metropolitan of Wallachia (1708-1715). These books were the first books
printed in Tbilisi, and were all published between 1709 and 1722. The Turkish invasion of 1723 put an end
to this publishing operation. All
but two of these books were religious in nature (including liturgical works and
portions of the Bible). The only
secular books published were the first edition of Shota Rustaveli’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Vepkhis t’q’aosani</i> (1712), and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis codnis c’igni</i> (1721). This must have been seen as a
valuable and important book, to be found in such select company!<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="color: black;">Kmnulebis codnis c’igni</span></i><span style="color: black;">
(“Book of knowledge of creation”) was translated from the Persian by the king
himself, with the aid of Persian scholars, including one Mirza Abduriz
Tavrizeli. It is translated from a
work by ‘Ali Qushji of Samarkhand
(15<sup>th</sup> century), but includes comments and a preface written by
Vakht’ang VI. Between 200 and 300 copies of this book were printed.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">The books
printed in Tbilisi between 1709 and 1722 were products of a period of national
revitalization in the kingdom of Kartli—yet what purpose did this book serve in
such a context, and why was it considered important? <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis codnis c’igni </i>presents a geocentric model of the
universe, the same as that described by Claudius Ptolemy in the 2<sup>nd</sup>
century A.D. Does this imply that
Vakht’ang VI was unaware of the Copernican revolution? Not at all—it was because calculations
based on a geocentric model were (and still are) used to cast horoscopes. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis codnis c’igni </i>thus presents in
compact form a geocentric but phenomenologically accurate description of the
motions of the heavenly bodies, with a view to its practical use in casting
horoscopes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Throughout the history of the
church, astrology has been controversial.
The biblical account of the Magi who came to adore Christ (Matthew 2)
provides a strong apologetic for astrology, since there is little doubt that
these “wise men” were Persian (or perhaps Indian) astrologers, or that they located the infant Christ by means of
astrology—this becomes clear if the text is read in light of what we know about
ancient astrological practices. Yet a survey of Patristic literature
reveals that some Christian writers saw astrology as compatible to some degree
with Christian beliefs and practices, while others condemned it as a form of occultism, idolatry, or
fatalism. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The teachings of Origen (c185-c254
A.D.) are especially interesting.
Strongly influenced by Stoic philosophy, Origen believed that the entire
cosmic cycle (from the Creation to the final Conflagration) was encompassed in
the “Great Year” or “Platonic Year”—the precessional cycle of 25,920
years. The end would be signaled
by the return of the heavens to their original position, after which the entire
cycle would be repeated.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">How did
Vakht’ang VI deal with this tension?
Since he begins his book by quoting from the Scriptures (Psalm 116), it
is clear that the king saw the possibility of reconciling astrology with his
Christian faith. A similar course
was followed by many in Western Europe, where many Catholic universities had
chairs of Astrology, which usually involved lecturing on Ptolemy’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Almagest</i>. The autobiography of Diego de Torres Villarroel (1743), a
professor at the University of Salamanca, demonstrates that astrology was still
held in high regard during the 18<sup>th</sup> century. Astrological treatises
typically began with a Christian justification of Astrology, and usually
proposed some theory of astrological causation or synchronicity as well, in
keeping with the principle of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ut supra
ita infra</i> (“as above, so below”).
The king’s preface thus falls solidly within this tradition.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">One of
the diagrams in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis codnis c’igni</i> portrays a division of the celestial
circle into eight houses (rather than the usual twelve). The origins of this <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">octotopos</i> system are quite obscure, but
it is attested in Manilius (1<sup>st</sup> century A.D.), in the Michigan
Papyrus 1 (perhaps 2<sup>nd</sup> century), in Firmicus Maternus (4<sup>th</sup>
century), and in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Brhat-samhita</i> of
the Indian astrologer Varahamihira (6<sup>th</sup> century). It was later utilized by Tycho Brahe
and Hieronymus Cardanus, among others.
A collation of this text with the Persian original will answer the
question of whether Vakht’ang VI derived this concept from the work of ‘Ali
Qushji, or whether this was an interpolation from some other source. If so, this reveals a highly
interesting connection to an obscure strand of the western astrological
tradition.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">Was there
a uniquely Georgian school of Astrology?
To me, this is a most interesting question, and this research ultimately
seeks to answer it. While it is
evident that Arabic and Persian influences predominated, it may be possible to
detect other strands as well, including Byzantine and later Western
influences. There is also the
possibility of pre-Islamic Persian influence, due to the adoption of
Zoroastrianism in some parts of the Caucasus during the Sassanian period. If this could be confirmed, it would be
of great historical and cultural interest, since comparatively little
information has survived concerning the astrological practices of the Magi.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;">I am in
the midst of a preliminary analysis of this text, which I hope will answer some
of these questions. I am also
hoping to make a comparison of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis
codnis c’igni</i> to another near-contemporary text, </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Saet'lo
xiromant'ia</i><span style="color: black;"> (circa 1720). It is my belief that, studied
side-by-side, these two books will provide a clear and detailed picture of the
Georgian astrological tradition as it was manifested in the early 18<sup>th</sup>
century. I expect that the study
of these works will reveal the existence of a uniquely Georgian astrological
practice, having its roots in the Caucasus but incorporating influences from a
number of other traditions.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span></b>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Works of ‘Ali
Qushji [</span>‘Ala’ ‘l-Din ‘Ali ibn Muhammad al-Qushji]</u></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">•
Hall ashkal al-Qamar [“Solution of phenomena of the Moon”]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">•
commentary on Ulugh Beg’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zij<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">•
Risala fi’l-Hay’a [and Arabic version = Risala al-Fathiyya; geometry]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">•
Risala fi’l-Hisab [and Arabic version = Risala Muhammadiyya; arithmetic]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">•
Sharh al-Tajrid (commentary on Tusi’s Tajrid al-Kalam; philosophy)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">•
Sharh al-‘Adudiyya [“Commentary on Contradition”; philosophy or logic]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">•
‘Unqud [“cluster”—probably a miscellany]<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">It
appears from this that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis Codnis
C’igni</i> is a translation of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hall
ashkal al-Qamar. </i>It is thus a
work specifically dedicated to the explanation of lunar motion. This is borne out by the fact that, of
the 30 diagrams which the work contains, at least 14 of them appear to
illustrate lunar phenomena (most of the others illustrate basic principles of
plain and spherical geometry).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">Vakht’ang
VI has thus Christianized the work’s title.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">“Georgian
chronicles tell us that in the 2<sup>nd</sup> century BC Georgia used a lunar
calendar, and we know that this lunar calendar continued to be used until the
end of the 3<sup>rd</sup> century A.D” (I. Simonia, 1999).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 14pt;">“In
the 3rd century BC the Georgian king Parnavaz united the western and eastern
Georgian states into a single state.
At that time the religion of Zoroastrianism was widespread. The principal Georgian god was the Moon,
which was seen as the symbol for a male warrior. The Moon's sacred animal was
the bull, and thus bulls were frequently given as sacrifice. The shape of the bull's horns reminded
the ancient Georgians of the Moon” (I. Simonia, 1999).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 16.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black;">Sassanian (Magian) Astrology<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">• developed the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Zij-i Shah</i> (564 A.D.), an extremely
accurate set of astronomical tables.
Based on coincidence of the conjunction of Jupiter with the Sun on 17
March 564, with the spring equinox on the following day. The equinox (defined as the beginning
of Aries in the tropical zodiac) took place precisely 10’01” east of the star
Zeta Piscium, so that the tropical and sidereal zodiacs coincided exactly. This observation enabled the Magi to
precisely compute the ayanamsa (adjustment for precession, expressed in degrees
of difference between the tropical and sidereal zodiacs). The Sassanian ayanamsa is still used
today, and amounted to precisely 20º02’39.5” on January 1, 2000. The original Zij-i Shah (written in
Pahlavi) is lost, but can be largely reconstructed from details found in later
Arabic sources.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">• used a fixed (sidereal) zodiac,
divided into 28 lunar mansions (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">manazil,
nakshatras</i>); this was also a feature of Indian astrology.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">• focused on the study of mundane
astrology (analysis of political events and the unfolding of history in terms
of astrological cycles), emphasizing the Great Conjunctions of Jupiter and
Saturn: these fall into cycles,
with a Great Conjunction occurring approximately every 20 years (the last
occurred on May 31, 2000), a Mutation (change of triplicity) approximately
every 240 years, a Grand Mutation (return to original triplicity) approximately
every 960 years, and a complete Rotation of the Trigon approximately every 2400
years. This focus is probably
related to the Zoroastrian division of history into 1000-year cycles, which
corresponded more or less to the Grand Mutations.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">• developed the concept of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">firdaria</i> (division and subdivision of
the life-time into periods corresponding to the planets).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">• emphasized the lunar nodes
(points where the Moon’s orbit crosses the ecliptic; Draconis Caput =ascending
node; Draconis Cauda, = descending node); as in Indian astrology, these were
comparable to visible planets in their importance. The pair of them was known as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gochihr</i> (the dragon).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">• used Hypothetical Planets,
including <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mihr</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mushparik</i>, </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mûspar</i> (or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gadûg</i>),<span style="color: black;"> a “dark sun” and a “dark moon.” These were moving geometrical points whose position was
calculated in various ways.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">• used Orbs of Aspect (zones of
influence for each planet, varying in size). This idea was unknown to Greco-Roman astrology.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">• greatly emphasized LIGHT in
their analysis of planetary inter-relationships. This was manifested in such rules as Abscission of Light,
Collection of Light, Translation of Light, Prohibition, Frustration, and Refranation;
and in the doctrine of Planetary Sect (some planets being stronger by day,
others by night). This emphasis is
closely tied to Zoroastrian dualism.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">Zoroastrianism and Persian
influence prevailed in much of the Caucasus until the conversion of the
Georgians to Christianity in the early 4<sup>th</sup> century. One may therefore expect to find some
Magian influence on Georgian astrology.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">Pre-Christian names of the planets
(drawn from Old Georgian Chronicles):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">Jimagi (Mercury)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">Mtiebi (Venus)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">Tarxoni (Mars)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">Obi (Jupiter)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">Morige (Saturn)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
“These names were used
in Georgia until the end of the 3rd century A.D.” (I. Simonia, 1999). They are thus associated with the
Sassanian period.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Different
schools of Astrology (The Western Astrological Tradition)<o:p></o:p></span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Geneva;">BABYLON (omina) vs.
EGYPT
(zodiacal)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Geneva;"> /
\ +<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Geneva;">(magian) /
\ +<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Geneva;">PERSIAN\/
\Greco-Roman<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Geneva;"> / \ /
/ \<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Geneva;"> / \
Byzantine /
INDIAN<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Geneva;">
/ (Islamic) \ / /<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Geneva;">Jewish PERSIAN \ \ /
/ <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Geneva;"> \ \ /
/ <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Geneva;"> \ /
/<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Geneva;">ARAB ASTROLOGY<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Geneva;"> +<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Geneva;"> +<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Geneva;"> Western
Astrology <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-size: 14pt;"><br clear="ALL" style="page-break-before: always;" />
</span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">QUESTIONS FOR
FURTHER RESEARCH<o:p></o:p></span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">1. Who was Mirza
‘Abduriza Tavrizeli? Is there any
record of his activities in Tbilisi or elsewhere? Assuming that he was from Tabriz, with whom did he study?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">2. Can we reconstruct
a chain of transmission from Mirza ‘Abduriza Tavrizeli back to ‘Ali Qushji (or
to other Persian astronomers)?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">3. Which of ‘Ali
Qushji’s works was the basis for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis
Codnis C’igni</i>? Where is the
original copy used by Vakht’ang VI and Mirza ‘Abduriza Tavrizeli? If it is extant, does it contain any of
their comments or annotations?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">3. Are there any
extant manuscript works of Vakht’ang VI which deal with astronomy/astrology?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">4. Do the diagrams
published in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis Codnis C’igni</i>
differ from the diagrams (if any) to be found in manuscripts of ‘Ali Qushji’s
work?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">5. Does <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kmnulebis Codnis C’igni</i> follow ‘Ali
Qushji’s text exactly—or is it characterized by omissions or expansions?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black; font-size: 14pt;">6. What was the
nature of the “troubles” which Vakht’ang experienced “because of these
books”? Is he referring to his
publishing enterprise in general, or is he referring specifically to his
astronomical pursuits?<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-42240916571303568262012-01-27T18:58:00.000-08:002012-01-27T18:58:31.388-08:00Memorization and Mnemonic Strategies (2006)<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> Memorization and Mnemonic Strategies</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> Timothy P. Grove</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> ISCL 721 </b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"></b><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> Dr. Judith Lingenfelter, Ph.D.</b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> 5 May 2006<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b><br /></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> The
voice of Funes, out of the darkness, continued. He told me that <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">toward 1886 he had devised a new system of enumeration and that in a <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">very few days he had gone beyond twenty-four thousand. He had not <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">written it down, for what he once meditated would not be erased. The <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">first stimulus to his work, I believe, had been his discontent with the
fact <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">that "thirty-three Uruguayans" required two symbols and three
words, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">rather than a single word and a single symbol. Later he applied his <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">extravagant principle to the other numbers. In place of seven thousand <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">thirteen, he would say (for example) <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Máximo Perez</i>; in place of seven <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">thousand fourteen, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Train</i>;
other numbers were <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Luis Melián Lafinur</i>,
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Olimar</span></i><span style="font-size: 11pt;">, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Brimstone</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Clubs</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Whale</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gas</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Cauldron</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Napoleon</i>, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-size: 11pt;">Agustín de Vedia</span></i><span style="font-size: 11pt;">. In lieu of five hundred,
he would say <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nine</i>. Each word <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">had a particular sign, a species of mark; the last were very
complicated. . . . <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">I attempted to explain that this rhapsody of unconnected terms was
precisely <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">the contrary of a system of enumeration. I said that to say three
hundred and<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> sixty-five was to say
three hundreds, six tens, five units: an analysis which <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">does not exist in such numbers as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Negro Timoteo</i> or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Meat Blanket</i>. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">Funes did not understand me, or did not wish to understand me.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;"> --Jorge
Luis Borges, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Funes el Memorioso </i>(1944)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<o:p><br /></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Introduction<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><o:p><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></o:p></u>My
own interest in mnemonics arose at the time I learned to read. I started reading during the summer
before first grade by learning to “sound out” the signs we passed. When I couldn’t figure one out,
sometimes my father or mother would tell me what it said. Through this means, along with reading
lessons at school, I became an avid reader over the course of the next year or
two.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
At
the same time, I noticed a parallel phenomenon which puzzled me: my acquisition of the ability to read
coincided with the loss of my ability to remember things <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">verbatim</i>. It had once
been easy for me to memorize the script of any T.V. commercial after seeing it
a few times. After I learned to
read, I could no longer do this. I
had also been able to recognize the voices used in commercials; when I heard an
announcer’s voice, it was almost like seeing a face—I could always recall the
different contexts where I had heard it before. When I learned to read, I lost this ability also. It is very interesting for me to
remember how during the years before I learned to read, I had seen vivid
pictorial representations in my mind whenever something was said. I can best describe these as being
somewhat like Egyptian hieroglyphics: colored symbols figured in parallel
registers or rows. I believe these
were based partly on the meaning of the words, and partly on their sound (since
words of unknown meaning were readily represented). To the best of my recollection, the symbols were mainly
geometrical shapes arranged in patterns, and of various colors. Some of the words and phrases had a more elaborate representation as a kind of stylized scene (analogous to the
introduction to a T.V. show, which is invariable though the program itself is
different each week, e.g. the opening sequence of the “Andy Griffith Show,” with Andy and Opie
returning from fishing, or the final credits with the pine trees). I can still remember some of the
imagery that came to mind every time our family recited the Lord’s Prayer, as
well as the symbols for a few other expressions. For example, “General Mills” (a phrase which I often heard
on television without knowing what it meant) was conveyed by a dark outline of
a square object resembling a telephone, with two blue dots in the center
resembling eyes, and two large red dots to the right of it. The symbolism was quite arbitrary,
somewhat in the manner of Chinese characters. In other words, the symbol for “General Motors” would
probably have had little or no relation to the one for “General Mills."</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
I
remember wondering about these symbols sometimes—about where they came from and
whether other people saw them as well; I believe I even asked my mother about
it once, but I was not able to make her understand exactly what I meant. I concluded eventually that even if
other people saw pictures as I did, they were probably not exactly the same
pictures. But I remember thinking,
if I could find one other person who saw the same pictures I did, it would be
easy, using crayons, to write a message to him or her, and so in a sense I
already knew how to read and write!
Unfortunately I never did attempt to record any of my “hieroglyphics,”
and after learning to read, instead of the pictures I used to see, I started
seeing printed words. The details
of my little hieroglyphs were soon forgotten.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
My
ability to readily memorize things gradually diminished. I remember that during first and second
grades I could memorize a Bible passage (7-10 verses) quite easily during the 8:30 church service, despite the
distraction of the singing and the sermon, so that I could recite it perfectly
during Sunday School and get my gold star. This would be very hard for me to do nowadays in such a
short time, even without distractions.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Synaesthesia</u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b>Unusual
capacity to remember is frequently associated with <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">synaesthesia</i>, which occurs when input through one of the senses
triggers perceptions involving one or more other senses. For example, musical tones may be
associated with various colors, or shapes and colors may trigger parallel
perceptions involving taste, smell, or texture.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A.
R. Luria documents a remarkable case of photographic memory in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Mind of a Mnemonist</i> (1968). His subject, S., reported having
experienced synaesthetic reactions at a very early age: “When I was about two or three years
old I was taught the words of a Hebrew prayer. I didn’t understand them, and what happened was that the
words settled in my mind as puffs of steam or splashes…Even now I <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">see</i> these puffs or splashes when I hear
certain sounds” (Luria, 1968: 24).
S. experienced musical tones not only as sounds, but also as shades of
color, which varied according to their pitch and volume. He experienced human voices in much the
same way: “‘What a crumbly, yellow
voice you have,’ he once told L. S. Vygotsky while conversing with him” (Luria,
1968: 25). For S., every speech sound was associated with a “striking visual
image, for it had its own distinct form, colour and taste. Vowels appeared to him as simple figures, consonants as
splashes, some of them solid configurations, others more scattered—but all of
them retaining some distinct form.
As he described it: ‘A is something white and long; I moves off somewhere ahead so that you just can’t sketch it,
whereas Y is pointed in form’” (Luria, 1968: 26). S. experienced numbers in much the same way: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 15px;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 15px;">1 is a pointed number—which has
nothing to do with the way it’s written. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">It’s because it’s somehow firm and complete. 2 is flatter, rectangular, whitish <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">in colour, sometimes almost a grey. 3 is a pointed segment which
rotates. 4 <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">is also square and dull; it looks like 2 but has
more substance to it, it’s thicker.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">5 is absolutely complete and takes the form of a
cone or a tower—something</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;">substantial. 6, the first number after 5, has a
whitish hue; 8 somehow has a</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-size: 11pt;"></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 15px;">naïve quality, it’s milky blue like lime . . .
(Luria, 1968: 27).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p>Luria
seems to have believed that pure synaesthesia was characteristic of early
childhood, and tended to weaken during later stages of development. Perhaps all children experience
synaesthesia before they become capable of understanding and using speech—a
stage of development of which, since it is pre-verbal, adults retain little or
no memory. In other words, we were
all once capable of “seeing” sound and “hearing” colors. This is known as the
Neonatal Synaesthesia Hypothesis (Baron-Cohen, 1996). It is also interesting to note that one of the most commonly
reported effects of L.S.D. is the experience of synaesthesia—“Sometimes you can
smell the green, when your mind is feeling fine” (Aliotta-Haynes-Jeremiah,
“Lake Shore Drive,” 1971; this was a hit single in Chicago when I was growing
up).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
For
S., synaesthesia persisted throughout his adult life. According to Luria, S. had two ways of remembering
things. One was to use what is
commonly known as “photographic memory.”
S. had merely to concentrate for a short time on a page of writing,
whether text or a list of numbers, and he would later (even years later) be
able to close his eyes and “see” it in detail. His visual recollection was so exact that he would sometimes “misread” similar symbols, such as 3 and 8, if
they had been written carelessly on the page (Luria, 1968).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Artificial Memory<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
“Photographic memory” of the sort
which Luria describes is simply a highly developed version of the memory which
we all possess to a greater or lesser degree, and which the Romans designated
by the term “natural memory” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria
naturalis</i>), in contradistinction to another kind of memory which they
called “artificial memory” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria
artificiosa</i>) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rhetorica ad Herennium</i>,
III.xvi.28). Artificial Memory
(later known as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ars memorativa</i>) is
potentially of great interest to educators, linguists, and practically everyone
else. It entails the conscious
cultivation of strategies for remembering, sometimes involving mnemonic systems
of remarkable complexity and ingenuity. This
is illustrated by S’s other method of remembering, which was to convert data
into visual images:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Formerly, in
order to remember a thing, I would have to summon up an image of the whole scene. Now all I have to do is take some
detail I’ve decided on in advance that will signify the whole image. Say I’m given the word horseman. All it takes now is an image of a foot
in a spur. Earlier, if I’d been
given the word restaurant, I’d have seen the entrance to the restaurant, people
sitting inside, a Roumanian orchestra tuning up, and a lot else . . . Now if
I’m given the word, I’d see something rather like a store and an entranceway
with a bit of something white showing from inside—that’s all, and I’d remember
the word. So my images have
changed quite a bit. Earlier they
were more clear-cut, more realistic.
The ones I have now are not as well-defined or as vivid as the earlier
ones. . . I try just to single out one detail I’ll need in order to remember a
word (Luria, 1968: 37).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p>In
contrast to the purely synaesthetic reactions to numbers noted above, S. also
converted them into images: “Take
the number 1. This is a proud,
well-built man; 2 is a high-spirited woman; 3 a gloomy person (why, I don’t know);
6 a man with a swollen foot; 7 a man with a moustache; 8 a very stout woman—a
sack within a sack” (Luria, 1968: 30).
S. was able to process all words and numbers in this way, and even unfamiliar
or foreign words were registered by means of some visual impression he
associated with them, which was “related to the phonetic qualities of the word
rather than to its meaning” (Luria, 1968: 30).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
When
he wanted to remember a long series of data, S. had devised a way of
distributing his visual images along a road or street which he visualized in
his mind, either a street in his home town or a street in Moscow where he lived
as an adult. By mentally traveling
along the street, he could quickly retrieve a series of data either forwards or
backwards. “Sometimes,” he
confessed, “I put a word in a dark place and have trouble seeing it as I go by”
(Luria, 1968: 33).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
S.
created this system independently, and was apparently unaware of any writings
on the subject. In fact,
Artificial Memory very much like the system S. developed was cultivated in
antiquity, and is discussed by several important classical authors. The most extensive discussion is found
in the anonymous <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rhetorica ad Herennium</i>
(III.xv-xxiv). Parallel passages
are found in Cicero <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De Oratore</i>
(II.lvxxxvi-lvxxxviii) and in Quintilian’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Institutio
Oratoria</i> (XI.ii), both of which present similar material but add some
important details. In all these
works, reference is made to earlier Greek authorities on the subject, including
Simonides, Charmadas, and Metrodorus of Scepsis. However, apart from a brief passage in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Dissoi Logoi</i> (ca. 400 B.C.), no Greek
writings on the subject have survived.
Ancient practitioners of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria
artificiosa</i> were capable of some astounding feats: “Seneca the Elder tells us (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Controversiae</i> 1.19) that Cicero’s famous
rival Hortensius once in answer to a challenge sat through an auction all day
long and at the end of the day was able to give from memory the
full list of articles, buyers, and prices in order without a mistake” (Post,
1932: 107).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Three Kinds of Artificial Memory<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><o:p><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></o:p></u>Traditionally,
Artificial Memory (or Mnemotechnic) was of two kinds: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Memoria rerum</i> (“memory for things,”) and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Memoria verborum</i> (“memory for words”) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rhetorica ad Herennium</i>, III.xxiv). To these may be added a third, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Memoria numerorum</i> (“memory for numbers”), which appears to have
been invented in the 17<sup>th</sup> century. In mediaeval times, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria
verborum</i> was also known as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria
verbatim</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria verbaliter</i>, or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria ad verbum</i>, while <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria rerum</i> was also called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria summatim</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria sentialiter</i>, or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria
ad res</i> (Carruthers & Ziolkowski, 2002).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u>Memoria Rerum</u></i><u>: The System of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Loci<o:p></o:p></i></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><o:p><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></o:p></u><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Memoria rerum</i> encompassed various
strategies for remembering facts and details, usually in a specific order. The
strategy which S. devised independently was strikingly similar to an ancient
technique known as the system of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>,
which is most fully described in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rhetorica
ad Herennium</i>. If one
wants to use this system, the first step is to memorize a series of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i> (“places” or “backgrounds”). These “memory places” may be rooms,
buildings, the walls of a city, or outdoor locations of any kind, either real
or imaginary. Quintilian suggests
“a spacious house divided into a number of rooms" (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Institutio Oratoria</i>, XI.ii.18). However, they must always be recalled
in the same order. For this
reason, a sequence of familiar rooms in a house or a well-known public building is useful. A
university or a museum, a church or school—any public building would be an
excellent choice, as long as one is thoroughly familiar with its rooms and
buildings so that one can mentally traverse them in order. Another useful way to accomplish this is
to visualize points along a familiar route or street, as S. did (Quintilian, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Institutio Oratoria</i>, XI.ii.21). Once the series of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i> has been set up, it is important to review it constantly in
order to become thoroughly familiar with the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i> in their correct sequence and to develop facility in their
use. The second component of the
system is the creation of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">imagines</i>
(“images”). Any image may be used
to symbolize an idea or a specific word, as long as the image readily brings
its subject to mind. The more
strange, vivid, or ridiculous the images are, the more effective they will be;
and individual practitioners of the system should develop whatever images they
find most memorable—one’s own images are always more memorable than someone
else’s. The Auctor ad Herennium (III.xxii.37) suggests that images be “as
striking as possible . .. if we assign to them exceptional beauty or singular
ugliness; if we dress some of them with crowns or purple cloaks, . . . if we
somehow disfigure them, as by introducing one stained with blood or soiled with
mud or smeared with red paint, so that its form is more striking, or by
assigning certain comic effects to our images, for that, too, will ensure our
remembering them more readily.”
For example, Thomas Bradwardine (c1290-1349) suggested that to remember
the word “bitterness,” one should create an image of someone gagging on a
bitter substance (Carruthers & Ziolkowski, 2002). Indeed, many of the examples presented in Renaissance treatises on mnemonics were scandalous, even
pornographic (Rossi, 2002: 30).
Clearly, concrete images, especially those which involve violence or
strong emotion, are more effective as memory tools than abstract ideas. Another
important principle to be considered is that “memory delights in
brevity”—information to be remembered is best stored in knowledge-rich but
brief units, as S. demonstrated when he reduced a “horseman” to “a foot in a
spur” (Carruthers & Ziolkowski, 2002). The devising of both <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>
and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">imagines</i> requires much careful
thought.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In order to use the system, one
places the images of the things one needs to remember in the appropriate
places. For example, I might use
the house I lived in from 1973 to 1987 to create a series of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>. Supposing I want to remember the
signs of the zodiac in order. I
will begin by imagining a ram on the front porch. When I open the door, there is a bull in the hallway. I open the closet to hang up my coat
and there are two boys in there.
Going into my Mom’s office, I notice there is a large crab on the
desk. From there I go out into the
garage, where I narrowly escape a lion.
Running in through the laundry room, I find a young woman washing
clothes, and so on. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Although the Auctor ad Herennium
(III.xxii.37) cautions against placing too many images in the same <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">locus</i>, he and several other writers on
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ars memorativa</i> recommend the
creation of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tableaux</i> uniting several
images in the same background.
Thomas Bradwardine suggests a way of combining three images in each
locus, placing the first in the center, the second to the right, and the third
to the left (Carruthers, 1990).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
It is not enough to simply “place”
the images in their <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>. Before leaving, one must take a moment
to establish some “similitude” (connection or similarity) between the image and its <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">locus</i>
in order to create an association (Carruthers & Ziolkowski, 2002). In the example above, the woman must
actually be using the washing machine to wash clothes, not just standing there. The crab on the desk must be pictured ransacking the things
in the drawer with its claws. In
this way a vivid connection can be created between the image and its <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">locus</i>.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
It is remarkable that S. came up
independently with a system of locations and images which is almost precisely
similar to the system of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>
described by the classical authors—right down to the directive that “the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i> ought to be neither too bright nor
too dim, so that the shadows may not obscure the images nor the luster make
them glitter” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rhetorica ad Herennium</i>,
III.xix.32).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Different versions of the system of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i><o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Architectural systems<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
system of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i> as described by the
classical authors was essentially an architectural system. It consisted of a building of some
kind, perhaps a series of buildings, in which all the memory places could be
found. Some of these were in the
form of architectural niches (“spaces between columns”, according to the Auctor
ad Herennium) in which statues could be placed. Even when some of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>
were outdoor scenes or imaginary places, these were arranged in sequence with
all the rest, like glass cases in a museum or a series of views from windows.
One modern mnemonist has carefully analyzed the Oz books by Frank Baum, in order to
create a detailed plan of the palace in the Emerald City (M. Grandy,
n.d.). Some Renaissance memory
experts, like Matteo Ricci, the Jesuit missionary to China, created
elaborate “memory palaces” consisting of several hundred buildings. Francesco Panigarola, who may have been
one of Ricci’s teachers, had developed a mental system
comprising 100,000 loci! (Spence, 1984). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
It
was also possible to create fantastical connections between various
architectural structures. In the
example given above, if I discover that I need to create a very large number of
subcategories for “Gemini,” which I have placed in the hall closet, I can
install an imaginary door which opens from the back of the closet. Passing through this door, I find
myself in the street outside my church.
Using the church as a sub-system of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>,
I can create as many <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i> there as
necessary, all of them subordinate to the closet, which is the third <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">locus</i> in my house.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Closely
related to this is the mnemonic “room system.” Instead of an entire house, one uses a single room, such as
one’s office, with which one is extremely familiar. Assuming the furniture and most of the objects in the room
tend to remain in the same places, it becomes possible to “pigeonhole” mnemonic
images in a series of places around the room. It is still necessary, of course, to create an invariable
“itinerary” from one place to the next, reviewing it frequently so that the
proper sequence is assured. For
example, upon entering the door, one could visit each corner of the room in a
clockwise direction, ending up in the center of the room. This would create an invariable
sequence of five “places” within each room. Like the “magic door” in my hall closet, the room system
could also be used to create innumerable subdivisions in a basic architectural
layout. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Map systems<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In cases where it is necessary to
organize data into categories, but in no particular sequence, a map can be
used. For example, a student of
French might use his hometown to organize nouns according to their gender,
placing masculine nouns on one side of the tracks and feminine nouns on the
other. A student of German would
have to divide the town into three sectors (to accommodate masculine, feminine,
and neuter nouns). A person who is
thoroughly familiar with geography could use the continents, oceans, nations
and their provinces as a matrix to organize information. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Memory Theatres<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
It is possible to create an
imaginary theatre whose various sections and individual seats can be used as a
system of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>. The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">imagines</i>
are conceived as spectators occupying the seats, as seen from the stage. Systems of this kind were described by
Giulio Camillo (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Idea del Teatro</i>,
1548) and by Robert Fludd (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Utriusque
Cosmi, Maioris scilicet et Minoris, metaphysica, physica, atque technica
Historia</i>, 1621). Camillo
actually constructed and demonstrated for the king of France a miniature
theatre according to his plan, large enough for several people to
enter; presumably this included a large set of dolls to be used as spectators
(Yates, 1966). This system bears
some relation to one devised by a teacher I read about somewhere. His mnemonic system was based on his first group of 20 students. He continued to use this classroom as a
mnemonic device for years afterward!</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Journey systems<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
method of placing images along a familiar itinerary, as S. described, is an
example of a “journey system.”
This approach is mentioned in Quintilian’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Institutio Oratoria</i>, XI.ii.21. A repeated journey, such as one’s daily drive to work, is an
excellent basis for this system, since the points and landmarks along the way
become extremely familiar. When I
lived in rural Wisconsin, my parents and I had to drive 30 miles (from Sister
Bay to Sturgeon Bay) at least once a week to do essential shopping. I still have a good memory of most of
the points we passed along the way, so for me, this would be a good
choice. Another option is a very
memorable journey one has made, such as the Grand Tour of the Continent which
so many aristocratic Englishmen made in the late 18<sup>th</sup> century; my
own trip through Upper Burma in the summer of 2004 could provide a wealth of
“memory places,” which could be refreshed using a map and the series of
pictures I took along the way. A
further variation on this would be to use a railway as the basis for a journey
system, such as the (for me) familiar sequence of 13 stops on the Northwestern
between Wheaton and Chicago. In
order to create subsystems, one would imagine getting off the train at one of
the stations and traveling down one of the streets leading away from the
railroad. It might even prove
useful to actually drive around in that locality, in order to become acquainted
with those streets and where they lead. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Gallery systems<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Quintilian (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Institutio
Oratoria</i> XI.ii.21) mentions “pictures” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">picturis</i>)
as one way of creating a series of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>. This gave rise to a very active use of
pictures as mnemonic aids during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. Indeed, in view of the widespread cultivation of Artificial Memory during that period (during
which it was considered an indispensable part of education), it has been
suggested that many of the artworks of that time were planned as mnemonic
aids. A gallery of pictures could
easily be used as a system of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>. In my childhood, my parents purchased a
book called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The Bible in Pictures for
Little Eyes</i> by Ken Taylor, a series of 184 color pictures beginning with
Genesis 1 and ending with Paul’s shipwreck (Acts 27-28). We read from that book every night, and
its pictures became thoroughly familiar to me long before I had learned to
read, or even understood what the pictures meant. Such a book could be used extremely effectively as a gallery
system.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Literary text systems<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In the same way that pictures may
be used as mnemonic devices, such a use can be made of literary texts. Dante’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Divina Comedia</i>, for example, provides a comprehensive series of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i> in its three divisions (Inferno,
Purgatorio, Paradiso). There is reason to believe that Dante had this in mind when he
composed the work, and it appears to have gained some currency as a mnemonic
device (Eco, 1992).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Texts which have been memorized <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">verbatim</i> can themselves be used as
mnemonic peg systems. Since the
text has been mastered by rote, its invariable sequence of words, images, and
sentences can provide a structure to which <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">imagines</i>
can be attached (Carruthers, 1998).
A short memorized text like the Lord’s Prayer or the 23<sup>rd</sup>
Psalm can be used to provide a short sequence of pegs (The Lord—my shepherd—I
shall not want—He maketh me—to lie down—in green pastures . . .). To use this text to memorize, for
example, the stops Northwestern stops on the West Line out of Chicago, I would create the following associations: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Lord</i> + Chicago, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">My shepherd</i> +
Kedzie, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">I shall not want</i> + Oak Park, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">He maketh me</i> + River Forest, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">To lie down</i> + Maywood, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In green pastures</i> + Bellwood, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">He leadeth me</i> + Berkeley, Beside the
still waters + Elmhurst, and so on.
If this does not work well, it is possible to condense the series down
to its visual symbols (Shepherd, Green Pastures, Still Waters, Paths of
Righteousness, Valley of the Shadow of Death, Rod, Staff, Table, Mine Enemies,
My Head, Oil, Cup, House of the Lord), and this sequence can be used in the
same way. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
When long texts have been committed
to memory, such as the entire book of Psalms (as was commonly done in the
Middle Ages), or the entire Torah (as rabbinic students continue to do even
today), the result is a “memory palace” of truly imposing proportions!</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Alphabetical systems<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The letters of the alphabet have
commonly been used as a system of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>,
using a series of words beginning with each letter (e.g. Ape, Bee, Camel, Dog,
Egg). This is sometimes called a
“peg system.” The great advantage
of such a system is that the order of the series is easily maintained. Some
Renaissance writers on mnemonics presented multiple alphabets which could be
used for various purposes, such as an alphabet of birds (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Anser</i> [goose], <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bubo</i> [owl],
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ciconia</i> [stork], etc.). Boncompagno da Signa, in his treatise </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De memoria</i>, speaks
of using an alphabet of images “which can scarcely be written down on these
perishable pages”, by which he learned the full names of 500 students, along
with their places of origin (Carruthers & Ziolkowski, 2002: 114).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Astrological systems <o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The use of the Zodiac and its
subdivisions as a mnemonic device was well known in ancient times, and was
associated with Metrodorus of Scepsis (1<sup>st</sup> century B. C.) Quintilian (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Institutio Oratoria</i>, XI.ii.22) reports that “Metrodorus . . . found
three hundred and sixty different localities in the twelve signs of the Zodiac
through which the sun passes.”
According to Cicero, “Metrodorus of Scepsis in Asia, who is said to be
still living, . . . used to say that he wrote down things he wanted to remember
in certain ‘localities’ in his possession by means of images, just as if he
were inscribing letters on wax” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De
oratore</i>, II.lxxxviii.360). W. Den Boer (1986) notes the “great importance
[in classical antiquity] of astrology as a mnemonic and organizing system. . .
. Metrodorus’ ‘topical system of mnemonics’ remains worthy of
attention. By means of this system
one acquires 12 x 30 sections to arrange the memory’s stock in one large circle
of the Zodiac” (p. 14). Observing
that Greek historical works abound in astrological data, Den Boer suggests that
these astrological references may embody a mnemonic system, a “treasure-chamber
of memory . . . , i.e. the Zodiac and its sections or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>, in which the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">imagines</i>
of history are stored” (p. 30).
Den Boer believes that modern scholars have ignored “what the [Greek]
authors took for granted, namely, a principle of division derived from
astrology” (p. 35). He maintains
that although no specific examples of Metrodorus’ method are known, that is merely because “a quest for them
has never been made” (p. 35).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
It may be that Den Boer is assuming
a wider currency for the system of Metrodorus than it actually had, but there
is no doubt that subdivisions of the Zodiac were extremely familiar to the ancients and that they were
represented by a series of well-known symbols. For example, Aries, the first sign, is symbolized as a
ram. The 30 degrees of Aries are
divided into three decanates, each comprising 10 degrees. The first decanate of Aries is called
Senator, and it is “<span style="color: black;">the image of a black man,
standing and cloathed in a white garment, girdled about, of a great body, with
reddish eyes, and great strength, and like one that is angry.” The second decanate of Aries (called
Senacher) is “a form of a woman, outwardly cloathed with a red garment, and
under it a white, spreading abroad over her feet.” The third decanate of Aries (called Sentacher) is “the
figure of a white man, pale, with reddish hair, and cloathed with a red
garment, who carrying on the one hand a golden Bracelet, and holding forth a
wooden staff, is restless, and like one in wrath, because he cannot perform
that good he would” (Agrippa von Nettesheim, 1533). The 36 decanates have their origin in Egyptian astrology,
and are represented in several important Egyptian monuments. Their images are recorded (with some variation)
in numerous sources, some of them datable to late classical antiquity, along with
their names, which are Latinized corruptions of their original Egyptian
designations.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black;"></span>L.
A. Post (1932) assumes that the practice of Metrodorus was to group “ten
artificial backgrounds under each decan figure. He would thus have a series of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci </i>numbered from one to 360, which he
could use in his operations. With
a little calculation he could find any background by its number, and he was
insured against missing a background, since all were arranged in numerical
order” (p. 109). However, in
addition to the 36 decanates, each of the individual degrees also had a
traditional image associated with it. The earliest written source for these is from the 14<sup>th</sup>
century (Petrus de Abano, first printed in Johannes Angelus, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Astrolabium planum in tabulis ascendens</i>,
1488). However, it is possible
that they derive from some lost classical source. In any case, it seems likely that Metrodorus made
use of some similar scheme. The
symbols for the first ten degrees of Aries, corresponding to the decanate of
Senator, are as follows: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1 A
man holding a sickle in his right hand and a crossbow in his left.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">2 A
man with the head of a dog, stretching forth his right hand and holding a staff
in his left.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">3 A
man showing off various valuables with his right hand while reaching for
his belt with his left hand.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">4 A
man with curled hair, holding a falcon in his right hand, and a whip in his
left.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">5 Two
men: one cutting wood with an axe,
the other holding a scepter in his right
hand.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">6 A
crowned king, holding an orb in his right hand and a scepter in his left.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">7 A
heavily armored man, holding arrows in his right hand.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">8 A
man with a helmet on his head but otherwise unarmed, holding a crossbow
in his right hand.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">9 A
man, bareheaded but otherwise well dressed, holding a dagger in his left hand.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;">10 A
bareheaded man, running a bear through with a spear.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="color: black;"> In
later times, many other sets of symbols for the 360 degrees were published,
including those of P. Christian (Calendrier des T</span><span style="color: black; font-family: Times;">hèb</span><span style="color: black;">es, 1863), Charubel
[John Thomas] (1893), Antonio Borelli (1907), I. Kozminski (1917), M. E. Jones
(Sabian Symbols, 1925), and Janduz (1930). The modern sets of degree-symbols tend to be more striking </span><span style="color: black;">than the rather wooden characters
listed by Petrus de Abano. For
example, the Sabian Symbol for the 10<sup>th</sup> degree of Taurus is “A Red
Cross nurse,” while that for the 29<sup>th</sup> degree of Sagittarius is “A
fat boy mowing the lawn.”
Charubel’s symbol for the 20<sup>th</sup> degree of Gemini is “</span>A
red tree covered with golden fruit.”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The traditional symbols for the
decanates also formed an important part of the mnemonic techniques elaborated
by Giordano Bruno (1548-1600).
Bruno, who ended his career by being burned at the stake, believed that
the combinatory use of astrological and other symbols could give its
practitioner supernatural powers of memory and even some degree of control over
fate and natural circumstances.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Numerical systems<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Hugh of St. Victor (c1078-1141)
recommended the use of a number line as a mnemonic device: “Learn to construct
in your mind a line numbered from one on, in however long a sequence you want,
extended as it were before the eyes of your mind. When you hear any number at all called out, become accustomed
to quickly turning your mind there where its sum is enclosed, as though to that
specific point at which in full this number is completed. For example, when you hear ten, think
of the tenth place, or when twelve, think of the twelfth, so that you conceive
of the whole according to its outer extent, and likewise for the other (numbers). Make this conception and this way of
imagining it practiced and habitual, so that you conceive of the limit and
extent of all numbers visually, just as though placed in particular places”
(Carruthers & Ziolkowski, 2002: 36).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Those for whom mere numbers are not
as memorable as they apparently were for Hugh of St. Victor can use the “major
system” (described below) for remembering the numbers in sequence. This functions like the Alphabet
systems, but instead of 26 pegs, it furnishes 100 or 1000 pegs. The things one wants to remember are
simply associated with the number-symbols in order. This was my own practice at one time, but I discovered that
unless significant effort was put into establishing a “similitude” between the
two images, the “remembered” information became irretrievable.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
A good example of this is found in
Graham Best’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Memory made easy</i>
(1980). Best provides mnemonic
symbols to help remember the contents of each chapter in the New Testament,
rather like the series I put together for the book of Numbers; moreover, Best
uses key words from the “major system,” just as I did, to recall which chapter
the symbols go with (this is a remarkable coincidence, since I was completely
unaware of Best’s book when I did that project!). Best organizes Acts 5 around the key word “hill,” which
stands for the number five (see below under <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria
numerorum</i>). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Main Events: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .75in; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; tab-stops: list .75in; text-indent: -.25in;">
(1)<span style="font: normal normal normal 7pt/normal 'Times New Roman';"> </span>Ananias and
Sapphira sin and die.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
(2) The apostles spend the night in
jail but are released by an angel and told to speak the message of life.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
On a hill (key word) a hanon with
eyes (Ananias) falls dead beside a burning sofa (“sofa fire” is the alternate
for Sapphira). A hill inside a
jail surrounded by pistols (apostles).
An angel on the hill points and holds Life cereal, again a sufficient
reminder that the apostles were freed by an angel and told to preach the
message of life (Best, 1980: 73-75) [appendix G].</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Other systems of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i><o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The six colors of the spectrum can
provide a convenient 6-peg system, and perhaps many more for a person who is
sensitive to many shades of color.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
For those well-versed in pop music,
familiar record albums can be used to create a system of mnemonic <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>. The Beatles released 14 albums between 1963 and 1970,
comprising 28 album sides and 196 songs.
The Jefferson Airplane released 10 albums from 1966 to 1974. A person who is deeply familiar with
these tends to think of each album side as a separate unit, and each song on
the side as a distinct landscape, color, or feeling. One
useful application of this is that the details of an acid trip (which might
otherwise be lost forever) can be recalled and organized by their association
with the various album tracks that were playing at the time. For others, the weekly TV schedule
functions in the same way. It is
not hard to use either of these as matrices for organizing thoughts, ideas, and
information. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The human body is a useful mnemonic
system (the 206 bones in the human skeletal system, for example, or the 248
parts of the human body according to rabbinic tradition). Filippo Gesualdo (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Plutosofia</i>, 1592) created a system of 42 loci based on the human
body (21 loci on the right side, and 21 on the left) (Eco, 1992) [appendix
E]. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Elaborate systems arose based on the joints of the hands,
including the “Guidonian hand” system which was used to represent musical
intervals (Carruthers & Ziolkowski, 2002), and many others published as
late as the 17<sup>th</sup> century.
A modern survival of these is the well-known way of remembering the
number of days in each month according to the knuckles of one hand.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Other approaches to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria
rerum<o:p></o:p></i></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Although it was an indispensable
part of the teaching of classical rhetoric until early modern times, few people
today would find the system of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>
easy to use. However, although
Artificial Memory is no longer part of most people’s education, mnemonics are
still widely used for various purposes.
Mnemonics in general use today include the following: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">simple
mnemonics, acrostics, mnemonic rhymes, mnemonic stories, linked symbols, flat
representations</i>, and<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> mnemonic
apparatus</i>.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Simple
mnemonics</i> are used for spelling; for example, one might remember the
spelling of “friend” as “fri-END.”
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Acrostics
</i>are used to remember small sets of information, and may take the form of
words or entire sentences.
Examples include TULIP (Total depravity, Unconditional Election, Limited
Atonement, Irresistible Grace, Perseverance of the Saints), “Every good boy does fine” (lines of the treble staff), and “Fat
cats go down alleys eating bugs” (order of sharps). The sentence “Can Queen Victoria eat cold apple pie?” is
useful for remembering the seven hills of Rome (Capitoline, Quirinal, Viminal,
Esquiline, Coelian, Aretine, Palatine) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A
dictionary of mnemonics</i>, 1972: 73).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times;">Mnemonic rhymes </span></i><span style="font-family: Times;">are widely used throughout the world. An interesting example is the jingle used to distinguish the
deadly coral snake from the harmless scarlet kingsnake: </span><span style="font-family: Times;">“Red touch yellow, kill a fellow. Red touch black,
friend of Jack” (A variation is
“Red touch yellow, kill a fellow. Red touch black, venom lack”).</span><span style="font-family: Times;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mnemonic
stories</i> combine items of information to create a narrative. For example, to remember the New
England states (Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut,
Rhode Island): “The water MAIN
broke. When the guy came to fix
it, we were so grateful that we invited him in for a HAM dinner. Unfortunately, there were WORMs in
it—he got sick and died; since he was a Catholic, we attended his funeral
MASS. When we got to the church,
it was dark because the electricity was disCONNECTed. So instead, they held the funeral out in the ROAD.” Ridiculous, but quite effective, at
least in the short term.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
technique of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">linked symbols</i> is
similar to a mnemonic story, except that it connects the symbols together in
some way other than a story. One
way to do this is called “stacking.”
Here, the symbols are piled up vertically as high as possible, with
results suggestive of an illustration by Dr. Seuss. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
This practice of linking symbols
together is described in Thomas Bradwardine’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De memoria artificiali</i>:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Suppose that someone must memorize
the twelve zodiacal signs, </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
that is the ram, the bull,
etc. So he should make for himself
in the front of </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
the first location a very white ram
standing up and rearing on his hind </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
feet, with (if you like) golden
horns. Likewise one places a very
red </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
bull to the right of the ram,
kicking the ram with his rear feet; standing </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
erect, the ram then with his right
foot kicks the bull above his large and </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
super-swollen testicles, causing a
copious infusion of blood. And by </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
means of the testicles one will
recall that it is a bull, not a castrated ox or </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
a cow. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In a similar
manner, a woman is placed before the bull as though laboring </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
in birth, and from her uterus are
figured coming forth two most beautiful</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
twins, playing with a horrible,
intensely red crab, which holds captive the </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
hand of one of the little sons and
thus compels him to weeping and to such </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
signs, the remaining child
wondering yet nonetheless caressing the crab </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
in a childish way. Or the two twins are placed there born
not of a woman </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
but from the bull in a marvelous manner,
so that the principle of economy </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
of material may be observed. To the left of the ram a dreadful lion
is </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
placed, who with open mouth and
rearing on its legs attacks a virgin, </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
beautifully adorned, by tearing her
ornate garments. With its left foot
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
the ram inflicts a wound to the
lion’s head. The virgin truly
holds in her </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
right hand scales for which might
be fashioned a balance-beam of silver </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
with a plumb-line of red silk, and
then weighing-pans of gold; on her left is</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
placed a scorpion wondrously
fighting her so that her whole arm is swollen, and</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
which she strives to
weigh in the aforesaid scales (Carruthers, 1990: 283-84).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 3.0in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
A <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">flat representation</i> (also called a “group portrait”) is a picture
which attempts to connect a number of symbols in some meaningful way, in which
all the parts are related harmonically to a single composition, Carruthers
& Ziolkowski, 2002). Examples of this include a 17<sup>th</sup> century
engraving representing the content of II Kings (Rieger, 2000: 392) [appendix
A], Johannes Buno’s representation of the historical events of the 17<sup>th</sup>
century [appendix B], and an earlier set of woodcuts representing each chapter
of the four gospels (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A method for
recollecting the Gospels</i>, ca. 1470) [appendix C]. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
A <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mnemonic apparatus</i> organizes a complete set of information to be
remembered as a logical system of interrelationships. These were sometimes rendered graphically like a flat
representation, but could also be presented through words alone. Examples of mnemonic <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">apparatus</i> are Alanus de Insulis, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">On the six-winged seraph</i>, in which the
seraph’s wings and their feathers are used to organize the subdivisions of
theology; the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Viridarium Aristotelis
ethicum</i> [appendix D], which categorizes the philosopher’s ethical thought
using the branches of a tree; and Hugh of St. Victor’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De </i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times;">arca No</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times;">ë</span></i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times;"> mystica,</span></i> which is an extremely ambitious geometrical conception of
Noah’s Ark as a sort of “memory palace,” a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria
summatim</i> containing an outline of theology and biblical history, complete
with the Old Testament genealogies, a list of all the popes, and a summary of
all creation in the form of the Mediaeval “chain of being”<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i>(Carruthers & Ziolkowski, 2002)].</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
During
the Renaissance, the system of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>
and related techniques were refined far beyond anything known to the Greeks and
Romans. Extremely ingenious and
elaborate schemes were published by Host von Romberch, Guglielmo Grataroli, and
many others. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Grataroli developed a tripartite
system of place, object, and figure.
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
After designing a memory location
on conventional lines, he then </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
positioned in each an object—a
chamber pot, a box of salve, a bowl of </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
plaster were his first three
examples—and then had separate figures, </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
each based on an individual he knew
well and each carefully named, jolt </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
the scenes into mnemonic
action. Thus in rapid sequence
Grataroli </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
presented his friend Peter as
picking up the chamber pot full of urine </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
and pouring it over James, Martin
putting his finger in the ointment box </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
and wiping it over Henry’s anus,
and Andrew taking some plaster from </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
the bowl and smearing it over
Francis’s face. If one could link
these </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
vignettes by pun, analogy, or
association of ideas to given concepts, one </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
could be guaranteed never to forget
them (Spence, 1984: 136).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
obscenity typical of so many of these treatises (most of which were written by
Dominicans) eventually led to the rejection of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ars memorativa</i> by Protestants, and as a result it did not survive
as an organized system into modern times.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u>Memoria verborum</u></i><u>:
Rote memorization<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Memoria verborum</i> is usually accomplished
by means of rote repetition (from the Latin <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">rota</i>,
meaning “wheel”). This is what I
was doing during the adult church service, as I scrambled to commit 10 verses
from the King James Bible to memory.
Unless frequently reviewed, the results of this kind of memorization are
quickly lost. Even with frequent
review, it is possible for small errors to creep in, especially where
prepositions and conjunctions are concerned. I have found that rote memorization is easier to do in a
foreign language than in English (perhaps because there is less cognitive
“interference”). This has been my
experience, at least—I haven’t had time to research this question. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
most effective approach to rote memorization is to use the mediaeval principle
of “dividing and collecting” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">divisio
& compositio</i>); a long text is divided into manageable units, with an
organized structure (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">conspectus</i>)
which can be taken in at a glance (Carruthers & Ziolkowski, 2002). Thus, Hugh of St. Victor suggests that
each psalm be reduced to its <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">incipit</i>
(e.g. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Beatus vir</i> [Psalm 1], <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Confitebor tibi Domine</i> [Psalm 9], which
is then associated with its number.
Each psalm is then built up from this foundation or “stub,” and individual
psalms are in turn laid out into their component verses. The structure thus becomes a powerful
mnemonic aid, of equal importance to the content. This
approach to memorization is the practical motivation behind the division of the
Bible into chapters and verses. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Two effective aids to rote memorization, group recitation
and corporal punishment, are seldom used today. Group recitation roots out individual errors very
effectively, and is still used by rabbinic students. Teachers used to mete out corporal punishment to students, not only for misbehavior, but also for incorrect
answers and for errors in memorization.
This surely provided some degree of motivation for the students. My own difficulties in trying to learn
Chinese have tempted me to experiment with this method myself, perhaps by
holding my hand over a candle for a moment every time a new character is
introduced!</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Artificial <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria
verborum</i><o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">verbatim</i> memorization of texts is discussed in all the ancient
sources on mnemonics. The devising
of some means to facilitate this has been sought ever since— really this is the
“Holy Grail” of mnemonics! </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Mnemonics for the purpose of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria verborum</i> are usually rebus-like
associations of various kinds. For
example, in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Dissoi logoi</i>, a Greek
text on rhetoric from around 400 B.C., it is suggested that one recall the
word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pyrilampes</i> by thinking of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pyr</i> (fire) and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">lampein</i> (to shine) (Carruthers & Ziolkowski, 2002).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Latin authors have little to
add to this basic principle. The Auctor
ad Herennium gives some examples; to remember the line <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Iam domum itionem reges Atridae parant</i> (“And now their home-coming
the kings, the sons of Atreus, are making ready”), he suggests, “in our first
locus we should put Domitius, raising hands to heaven while he is lashed by the
Marcii Reges.” Thus, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">domum itionem</i> (“home-coming”)is encoded
as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Domitium</i> (a member of a well-known
plebeian family), and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">reges</i> is called
to mind by <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Marcii Reges</i> (the members
of a rival family of patricians); since<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">
itionem</i> is accusative, while <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">reges</i>
(“kings”) is in the nominative case, it is necessary to picture them doing
something to Domitius, hence the idea of lashing; “in the second background,”
the text continues, “Aesopus and Cimber, being dressed as for the roles of
Agamemnon and Menelaus in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Iphigenia</i>—that
will represent ‘Atridae parant’” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rhetorica
ad Herennium</i>, III.xxi.34). So <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Atridae</i> is encoded as Agamemnon and
Menelaus, in the guise of well-known actors in those roles, and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">parant</i> by the actors getting ready to go
on stage. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This approach to memorization has been current ever
since. Modern handbooks on memory
propose such rebuses as “Chick car go”
(for Chicago), “I owe her” (for Iowa), “mini soda” (for Minnesota), “new brass car” (for Nebraska),
and “whiz con sin” (for Wisconsin) (Lorayne, 1975: 155). These seem quite ludicrous—is it so
hard just to remember “Wisconsin”?
Still, maybe some people find this
easier than getting hold of a proper name. Other writers suggest applying this method to names (for
Andy, think of “Raggedy Andy”; for Peter, think of “Peter Pan”). This method is
especially useful for surnames: for Klingenhut,
it is suggested, think of someone clinging to a hut; for Eyberg, think of an
eye on an iceberg (Browning, 1983). Some publications include long indices of
common given names and surnames, with suggested mnemonic equivalents (Lorayne,
1975). Quintilian also discusses
an approach to remembering proper names based on their meaning.
Thus <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Fabius</i> is associated with
the famous Fabius Maximus (Hannibal’s opponent when he crossed the Alps to
invade Italy), much as we would do with “Lincoln” today. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Aper</i>,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ursus</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Naso</i>, and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Crispus</i> are
associated with their meanings (“boar,” “bear,” “long-nose,” and “curly,”
respectively). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cicero</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Aurelius</i> are remembered by means of their derivations (“sower of
chickpea [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">cicer</i>]” and “child of the
sun [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">a sole</i>],” respectively) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Institutio Oratoria</i>, XI.ii.30-31). Harry Lorayne (1975) provides an interesting mnemonic series for the twelve
months, employing the methods of both rebus and association: janitor
[rebus], brrr [rebus <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">and</i> association], march [pun], ape
[rebus], maypole [association], bride [association], firecracker [assocation],
gust of wind [rebus], scepter [rebus], octopus [rebus], turkey [assocation],
Santa Claus [assocation] (pp. 181-82)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The classical sources question the
value of an extensive use of this method, suggesting that its use be limited to
difficult words or unusual names, and as an exercise to strengthen one’s
ability to memorize (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rhetorica ad
Herennium</i>, III.xxiv.39).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The extensive use of mnemonics for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria verborum</i> is described by the
third-century rhetorician Longinus:
“Simonides and many since his time have published methods of memory,
introducing the juxtaposition of images and places in order to be able to
remember nouns and verbs. It is
nothing but seeing together things similar to any desired new thing and connecting them one with another. For the familiar thing is a symbol and
a track and a hold and a starting-point for the thing that is to be
recognized. In this way it is
possible to grasp even the speech of foreigners, putting in juxtaposition with
the familiar that which corresponds to it, and keeping in view the symbols of
the things” (Post, 1932: 107-108).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Graham Best, in his book <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Memory made easy</i> (1980), gives some
astonishing examples of how this method might be applied to memorizing Bible
verses: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
“7<sup>th</sup> commandment: You
shall not commit adultery. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A tree shines a flashlight on itself; it is
a dull tree (adultery). The cow
caught in its branches tells us that this is the seventh commandment </i>[this
last is derived from the “major system,” described below].</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
9<sup>th</sup> commandment: You
shall not bear false witness against your neighbor. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A bear holds a wet
nest (bear false witness) as it is being stung by a bee</i> [which stands for
the number 9]” (Best, 1980: 66) [appendix F]. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
“James 5:8 You too be patient; strengthen your
hearts, for the coming of the Lord is at hand. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In a heart is a letter
U and the number 2 to remind us of “You too be patient.” The heart is lifting weights to
strengthen itself and to remind us, strengthen your heart.” The heart is standing on a hand; “the
coming of the Lord is at hand.”</i>
(Best, 1980: 150). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Extended examples like these are
perhaps more trouble than learning by simple rote repetition. Still, everyone
who attempts to learn a text <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">verbatim</i>
must face the difficulty of how to memorize such things as articles,
conjunctions, and prepositions, which are not “content words.” This difficulty was recognized in
antiquity. In the example given above, it will be noted that the Auctor ad
Herennium makes no attempt to represent the adverb <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">iam</i>
(“now”). Quintilian writes: “I do
not mention the fact that some things, certainly conjunctions, for example,
cannot be represented by images.”
He goes on to say, however, that “we may, it is true, like shorthand
writers (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">qui notis scribunt</i>), have
definite symbols for everything, and may select an infinite number of places to recall all the words contained in the five books of the
second pleading against Verres [for example], and we may even remember them all
as if they were deposits placed in safe-keeping (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Intitutio Oratoria</i>, XI.ii.25). “Shorthand writers” is clearly a reference to the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Notae Tironianae</i> (“Tiro’s notes”), a
system of shorthand invented by Cicero’s secretary and widely used until around
1000 A.D. [for extensive examples of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Notae
Tironianae</i>, see Henke (n. d.),
and Boge (1974)]. There is some
evidence to suggest that the Tironian symbols for conjunctions, prepositions, and other short
words were sometimes used in conjunction with the system of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>. In the example already quoted from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rhetorica ad Herennium</i>, the missing word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">iam</i> could have been rendered by its Tironian shorthand equivalent,
which was an angular symbol pointing to the right, like the “greater than”
symbol (>), but with the angle less acute. This could have been added to the image in the first <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">locus</i> (the Marcii Reges lashing Domitius
with a crooked stick, for example), or it could have been made to occupy a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">locus</i> of its own (as an angle from
Euclid’s geometry, perhaps).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
For this same purpose, I have made
some use of symbols of my own, based in part upon dim recollections of the
mental hieroglyphs I once had. For
example, I associate the words “that” and “which” with little black acute
triangles, pointing up for “that” and pointing down for “which”. The idea behind this is that “that”
sounds like “hat” and “which” sounds like “wedge”. An ambiguity arises, however, since the “hat” symbol looks
like a witch-hat! I also sometimes
use the symbol of a hand pointing (the way it is printed in old books) for
“and,” and an image of the full moon (as it appears in calendars and almanacs)
to represent the word “so.” For
“the,” I sometimes use the Thomas shorthand symbol (a tiny circle). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Quintilian recommends mentally
“underlining” difficult passages in memorized material: “If certain portions prove especially
difficult to remember, it will be found advantageous to indicate them by
certain marks, the remembrance of which will refresh and stimulate the
memory. For there can be but few
whose memory is so barren that they will fail to recognize the symbols with
which they have marked different passages” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Institutio
Oratoria</i>, XI.ii.28-29).
Possibly he means that one should mark the passages in the book from
which one is memorizing, so that the marks will accompany the passages when
they are brought to mind. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Thomas Bradwardine (c1290-1349)
made an important contribution to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria
verborum</i>. He recommended
learning a keyword to represent every possible syllable. For example, for AB, he suggests using
the word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">abbas</i> (abbot). For BA, one could use another word such as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ballisterius</i>
(crossbowman), or, alternately, one could turn the abbot upside down! Bradwardine was also innovative in
suggesting that one could use mnemonic keywords not only from Latin, but from
any language one was familiar with (Carruthers & Ziolkowski, 2002).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) devised
an extremely bizarre mechanism for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria
verborum</i>. This is presented in
his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ars Memoriae</i> (1582), in which he associated each of the letters with a character from
classical mythology. For each character
he composed a simple description consisting of the character itself + its
activity + some passive condition.
Thus, for the letter D he had “Argus in bovis custodiam caputiatus”
(“Argus [a monster with 100 eyes] guarding the cow [the assignment Zeus gave him] beheaded [his manner of death]”). The entire series of characters,
activities, and conditions were inscribed on three imaginary concentric wheels,
with the characters on the inner wheel, their activities on the middle wheel,
and their conditions on the outer wheel.
The wheels were then turned to spell words. For example, the word AMO (“I love”) would result in a
juxtaposition of the character Lycas (who represented A) performing the
activity of Medea (who represented M), in the condition of Pluto (who
represented O). The image which
would emerge, therefore, is of a Centaur (Lycas) killing its children (as Medea
did) in Hades (the abode of Pluto).
It is hard to understand how such a cumbersome system could be useful,
at least as applied to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria verborum</i>. However, Bruno’s idea of subjects with
predication was quite original and has been taken up in our own day by Dominic
O’Brien, who has used it to develop a very useful system (see “Dominic System,”
below).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u>Memoria verborum</u></i><u>
and foreign languages<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
A special use of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria verborum</i> is its application to
foreign languages. Quintilian reports that “Mithridates is recorded to have
known twenty-two languages, that being the number of the different nations
included in his empire; Crassus, surnamed the Rich, when commanding in Asia had
such a complete mastery of five different Greek dialects, that he would give
judgement in the dialect employed by the plaintiff in putting forward his suit” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Institutio
Oratoria</i>, XI.ii.50).
Quintilian attributes these feats to a combination of natural ability
and some form of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">memoria artificiosa</i>. As we know from Longinus, quoted above,
one recognized application of mnemonics was “to grasp even the speech of
foreigners, putting in juxtaposition with the familiar that which corresponds
to it, and keeping in view the symbols of the things” (Post, 1932: 108).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
It is often useful to create some
mnemonic connection between one’s own language and the target language. For example, if I want to learn the
Korean word for “book” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chaek</i>), it is
easy to remember it by thinking of a “checkbook.” </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
“An English learner of German,
trying to remember the meaning of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Raupe</i>
(“Caterpillar”) could associate <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Raupe</i>
with the English word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">rope</i> (sound
similarity), and construct a mental image representing a caterpillar stretched
out in more than its fullest length (exaggeration helps!) on a rope. An English learner of French, trying to
remember <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">paon</i> (“peacock), might use
the word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pawn</i> as mediator, imagining
a chess board on which all pawns look like peacocks” (Hulstijn, 1997:
205). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Often it is useful to construct
sentences containing both the foreign word and its translation. For example, to remember the French
word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">f<span style="color: black;">â</span>ch<span style="color: black;">é</span></i> (“angry”), one could use the sentence, “A
fascist makes me ‘f<span style="color: black;">â</span>ch<span style="color: black;">é</span>’”
(Hulstijn, 1997: 206).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><u>Memoria numerorum.<o:p></o:p></u></i></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Numbers
are especially difficult to remember.
However, there is no evidence that the Greeks or Romans ever devised a
system for remembering numbers (Post, 1932). The writer of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Rhetorica
ad Herennium</i> suggests that the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>
be numbered, indicating every fifth <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">locus</i>
with a hand, and every tenth <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">locus</i>
with an acquaintance named Decimus. Later,
Thomas Bradwardine refined this by suggesting that every 10<sup>th</sup> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">locus </i>be marked with a cross (the Roman
numeral X). Hugh of St. Victor
writes as if numbers were striking and memorable symbols in themselves
(Carruthers & Ziolkowski, 2002).
However, for most people, the memorization of numbers presents a great
challenge. Since the 17<sup>th</sup>
century, a number of number memorization systems have been invented. These systems have two uses: to remember numerical data, and to
create a template for remembering a list of non-numerical data in sequence.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
A
simple way to remember numbers is to group them in some way that is
meaningful. For example, my office
phone number is 944-0351 x5105.
One way to group the numbers is 9-440-351, 5-10-5. Nine is easy to remember; next comes
440 (the frequency of a tuning fork for A), then 3, 5, 1 (the first three odd
numbers, beginning with 3 and cycling back to 1), then five, ten, five (this
makes me think of Franklin’s Five-and-Ten Store). Some people accomplish this by remembering the position of
the numbers on the telephone key-pad, and the motions necessary
to dial them (horizontal, vertical, diagonal). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
There
are several ways to encode numbers for memorization. One is to use the letters which appear on the telephone
dial. My number could be encoded
as WIG Zero-DJ-One K-Ten-K. This might be a little easier to remember than the numbers
themselves, but is not terribly useful.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Those
who have a good memory for historical dates might use them as a means for
remembering other numbers. In the
example above, 944 could be encoded as 1944 (attaching a “one” at the
beginning), and associated with the Battle of the Bulge. 0351 could be encoded as 1035 (by wrapping around the “one” to
the beginning) and associated with the death of king Canute. Finally, 5105 could be encoded as 1055
(wrapping around the “five” to the end), and then associated with the capture
of Baghdad by the Seljuq Turks.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Numbers can also be symbolized by
the number of letters in a word.
For example, a well-known mnemonic for the first 15 digits of Pi
(3.14159265358979) is the following:
“How I want a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy chapters
involving quantum mechanics.”</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Related to this (or perhaps
unclassifiable) are the mnemonics used to memorize Morse Code. Words and phrases are employed which
have the same rhythm as the dots and dashes which represent their initial
letter, e. g. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Alone</i> (dot-dash), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bountifully</i> (dash-dot-dot-dot), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Correspondent</i> (dash-dot-dash-dot), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Doubtfully</i> (dash-dot-dot), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Egg</i> (dot), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">For as much as</i> (dash-dot-dash-dot), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Good gracious!</i> (dash-dash-dot), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ha
ha ha ha</i> (dot-dot-dot-dot), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Japan’s
Jam Jars</i> (dot-dash-dash-dash), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Kingdom
come</i> (dash-dot-dash) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A dictionary of
mnemonics</i>, 1972: 54-55).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Minor systems<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><o:p><span style="text-decoration: none;"></span></o:p></u>Another
way to encode numbers is to use any of the several “minor systems” which have
been devised for the purpose. A
“minor system” is one which is used to encode the ten digits only; there is no
specially provision for encoding longer numbers, except to repeat the short
ones.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
best known of the minor systems associates numbers with rhyming words: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bun, Shoe, Tree, Door, Hive, Sticks, Heaven, Bait, Vine, Hen
(there are numerous variations on this).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Another
widely-known minor system associates numbers with objects of similar
shape: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1
= a rocket</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2
= a swan</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3
= a heart</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
4
= a sailboat</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
5
= a fishhook</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
6
= a quail [or a snail]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
7
= a tomahawk</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
8
= an hourglass</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
9
= a shepherd’s crook</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
0
= a donut</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Another
minor system is actually derived from the “major system’ (see next section),
since it associates the same ten sounds with the ten digits. Listed below are two of many possible
ways of doing this (Best, 1980: 59-60, 70). The first of these comprises words with the encoded consonant only; the second combines
those consonants with H (which has no numerical value):</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1
= Tie 1
= Hat</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2
= Noah 2
= Honey</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3
= Ma 3
= Home</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
4
= Ear 4
= Hair</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
5
= Law 5
= Hill</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
6
= Shoe 6
= Hatch</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
7
= Cow 7
= Hawk</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
8
= Ivy 8
= Hive</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
9
= Bee 9
= Hoop</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
0
= Donut 0
= Hose</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<o:p></o:p>Still another system of this kind
are the codes used by retail stores to indicate the wholesale cost they paid
for an item. For example, at Long
Drugs and many other stores, prices are converted into the corresponding
letters from the word “Charleston”: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1
= C</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2
= H</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3
= A</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
4
= R</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
5
= L</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
6
= E</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
7
= S</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
8
= T</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
9
= O</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
0
= N</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Thus, if the tag of an item priced at $3.99 includes the
letters ANT, that indicates that the actual cost to the retailer was $3.08,
with a markup of 91 cents. Other
codes of this kind include BRUSHCLEAN (formerly used by Walgreen’s) and
BRUNCHSALE (widely used) (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Drugstore El
President</i>, 2006).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<u>Major systems<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
A “major system” is one which associates digits with
phonemes (usually consonants, sometimes both consonants and vowels), which are
then used to encode strings of digits as words or even sentences. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
The inventor of this appears to have been one
Stanislaus Mink von Wenusheim (or Weinsheim or Winkelmann), who published the
particulars of his system in a paper entitled <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Parnassus</i> (1648). In
it, he shared the details of his “most fertile secret,” a way of expressing
numbers by words. Winckelmann’s
key was as follows: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
1 = B, P, W</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
2 = C, K, Z</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
3 = F, V</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
4 = G</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
5 = L</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
6 = M</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
7 = N</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
8 = R</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
9 = S</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
0 = T</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Thus, 2006 could be encoded as CTTM (or KTTM or
ZTTM). To remember this, you could
use words (Cat-tame, cat-at-home, kitty-ma), or sentences as an acrostic (Come
to the museum, Katie talked to me, Zebras try to mate). Winckelmann himself, a user of Latin, gave as an example the nonsense phrase <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">apio imo agor</i> (“I am led by the deepest
celery”), to represent 1648. The
vowels and H have no numerical value, and so can be inserted as needed; the
same is true of the letters D, J, Q, X, and Y (Middleton, 1885). Winckelmann’s
system is rather crude, and its partial adherence to alphabetical order, along
with its seemingly arbitrary omission of D, J, Q, and X, seems to have no
rational basis.
Nevertheless, it was a remarkable innovation, and nearly all subsequent
systems for remembering numerical data are variations on it. One of these was devised by Leibniz as
part of his attempt to create a universal language.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
A very interesting and influential system was
published in 1730 by Richard Grey, D. D., entitled <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Memoria Technica</i>. This
was reprinted many times until as late as 1880, and in English-speaking
countries it was the premier method used for memorizing historical dates for
more than a century. Dr. Grey used
both vowels and consonants to encode numbers. His key was as follows: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; mso-padding-alt: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; mso-table-layout-alt: fixed;">
<tbody>
<tr style="mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 28.0pt;" width="28"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">a</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 28.0pt;" width="28"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">e</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">i</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">o</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">u</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">au</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">oi</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">ei</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 30.0pt;" width="30"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">ou</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">y</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 1;">
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 28.0pt;" width="28"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;">1<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 28.0pt;" width="28"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;">2<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;">3<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;">4<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;">5<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;">6<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;">7<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;">8<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 30.0pt;" width="30"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;">9<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;">0<o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="mso-yfti-irow: 2; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 28.0pt;" width="28"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">b</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 28.0pt;" width="28"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">d</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">t</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">f</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">l</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">s</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">p</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">k</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 30.0pt;" width="30"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">n</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
<td style="background: white; border: none; padding: 0in 5.4pt 0in 5.4pt; width: 29.0pt;" width="29"><div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-align: center; text-autospace: none;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Arial-ItalicMT; font-size: 10pt;">z</span></i><span style="font-family: ArialMT; font-size: 10pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;">Thus,<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> a</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">b</i> both stand for 1, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">e</i> and
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">d</i> for 2, and so on, with either of
the two letters being used. In addition, Grey used <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">g</i> to represent hundreds, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">th </i>to
represent thousands, and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">m</i> to
represent millions. In order to avoid confusion between I (3) and Y (0), Grey
requires “that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">y</i> is to be pronounced
as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">w</i>, for the more easily
distinguishing it from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">i</i>, as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">syd</i> = 602, pronounce <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">swid</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">typ</i> = 307, pronounce <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">twip</i>”
(Grey, 1872: 3). After thoroughly
learning the key, the reader is then "to exercise himself in the formation
and resolution of words in this manner:– 10, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">az</i>; 325, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tel</i>; 381 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">teib</i>; 1921 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">aneb</i>; 1491<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> afna</i>;
1012 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bybe</i>; 536 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">uts</i>; 7967, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pousoi</i>; 431 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">fib</i>; 553 lut; 680 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">seiz</i>
&c.” (Grey, 1872: 2).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;"></span>Since
both consonants and vowels are used, there are multiple ways of representing
the same numbers: “325 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tel</i>, or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">idu</i>, 154 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">buf</i>, or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">blo</i>, or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">alf</i>, or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">alo</i>, 93,451 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ni-ola</i>, or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">out-fub</i>, or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ni-fla</i>, or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">out-olb</i>, &c.” (Grey, 1872: 3).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;">The
bulk of Grey’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Memoria Technica</i> is a
presentation of tables of historical dates, along with mnemonic hexameter
verses for use in remembering them:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;"> The ages of the world before our
Saviour’s time are, by <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">chronologers, generally divided into six: the first, from the creation to <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">the deluge; the second, form the deluge to the call
of Abraham, &c. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">according to the following periods:</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 13px;">Bef. Christ.</span> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;"></span>4004 1. The Creation of the world </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;">2348 2. The universal DELuge <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;">1921 3. The call of Abraham <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1491 4. Exodus, or the departure of the
Israelites from Egypt </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;">1012 5. The foundation of Solomon’s TEMple <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;"> </span>536 6. CYRus, or the end of the captivity </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;"> The
birth of Christ.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;"> All this is expressed in one line belonging to Table I., as
follows:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">Cr<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">othf </i>Del<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">etok</i> Ab<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">aneb </i>Ex<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">afna</i> Tem<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bybe </i>Cyr<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">uts.<o:p></o:p></i></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">Cr denotes the Creation, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">othf</i>
4004, Del the Deluge, Ab the calling of <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">Abraham, Ex Exodus, Tem the Temple, and Cyr Cyrus. The technical <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">endings of each represent the respective year, according to the rules <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">already laid down (Grey, 1872: 5).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">Since
the composition and recitation of Latin hexameter verses was a fundamental part
of a classical education, Grey’s assembly of his material into “verses” was
intended to work as an aid to memory.
When properly scanned, the above hexameter would have been pronounced as
follows (stressed syllables in bold type):<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times;">Crothf</span></b><span style="font-family: Times;"> Dele-<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">tok</b> Aba-<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">neb</b> Ex<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">-af</b>-na <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Tem</b>-bybe <b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Cy</b>-ruts.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">There
were some, even in Grey’s time, who rebelled at the prospect of memorizing
these barbarisms. As Middleton
(1885) puts it, “Dr. Grey fell into the error of replacing arbitrary characters
[i. e. numbers] by others almost as arbitrary.” However, Grey’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Memoria
Technica</i> went through multiple editions, and a great many people both in
England and America applied themselves seriously to learning his mnemonic
verses. For example, Lucius J.
Polk (1808-1869), a Tennessee planter, transcribed much of Grey’s system into a
notebook dated 1821 (Polk, 1821).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
Gregor von Feinagle gave a series of lectures in
Paris (1807) entitled “New system of mnemonics and methodics.” The details of Feinagle’s lectures were
compiled and published by his students.
They included a rearrangement of Winckelmann’s key:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
1
= T</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
2
= N</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
3
= M </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
4
= R</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
5
= L</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
6
= D</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
7
= K, G, Q, hard C</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
8
= B, W, V, H</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
9
= P, F</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
0
= S, X, Z, soft C</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Feinagle explained the basis for some of his choices: N
was used to represent 2 because it had two humps, M was used for 3 because it
had three humps; R represented 4 because the word for “four” has an R in most
European languages (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">four</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">vier</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">quatre</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">quattro</i>), and L
represented 5 by analogy with the Roman numeral fifty (L). Feinagle used these to form words just
as Winckelmann had done: <span style="font-family: Times-Roman; font-size: 16pt;"> </span><span style="font-family: Times;">“The number 12 can be readily expressed by </span>the
words <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tin, ton, tiny, eaten, oaten; </i>20
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">nose, onyx, noose</i>; 47 by <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">rook, ark, rake</i>; 547 by<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> lark, lyric</i>; and 1605 by <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tidy-seal</i>” (Middleton, 1885).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">In
his lectures, Feinagle went even further, describing a system of bewildering
complexity:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">
With this system he combined the plan of dividing a room into <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">fifty consecutive spaces, and indelibly associating a mental image or <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">hieroglyphic to each compartment. In forming this chain, he
appears <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">to have lost sight of the possibility of forming words which would <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">immediately suggest the number it represented. His chain of
symbols <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">is formed chiefly of striking objects, their consecutiveness being <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">ensured by the position they were supposed to occupy in each room.
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">Thus, the first compartment was supposed to contain an image of the <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">Tower of Babel. To fix the date of the Norman Conquest, he formed <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">a mental picture of a willow tree with a piece of dead laurel on it, and
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">associated it with the first space. The willow suggested William; <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">laurel, the Conqueror; being in the first space made it William I.; and <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">the consonants in the words <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">"dead"</i>
gave him the numbers 66, which, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">with the thousand understood to be dropped, gave 1066, the date of the <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">Conquest (Middleton, 1885).</span><span style="font-family: Times;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
Feinagle’s system became well-known in England
through translations of his work, and the English word “finagle” is derived
from his name! Feinagle’s major
system is certainly an improvement on Winckelmann’s, but is still defective in
that the consonant pairs T/D, P/F, and F/V represent different numerals, which
are thus liable to become confused.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Numerous
systems of this kind were published in the course of the 19<sup>th</sup>
century (Middleton counts 24 which appeared between 1830 and 1885!). The version most commonly used today,
generally known as the “Mnemonic Major System,” was published by Pliny Miles in
his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Elements of Mnemotechny</i>
(1845). Miles lectured on
mnemonics in the U.S., Canada, and London between 1844 and 1850 (Middleton,
1885). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Miles’ system was as follows:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
1 = T, D, TH</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
2 = N</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
3 = M</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
4 = R</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
5 = L</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
6 = CH, J, SH; ZH (as in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">measure</i>)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
7 = K, G</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
8 = F, V</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
9 = B, P</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
0 = S, Z</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
As
with the systems of Winckelmann and Feinagle, vowels have no numerical value,
and can be inserted wherever needed to form words. H, W, and Y can be used in the same way.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
I
first became acquainted with this system when I was trying to get a job with
the U.S. Post Office. The exam to
qualify is notoriously difficult, and part of it involves memorizing a list of 25 addresses (ironically, no one who
actually works for the U.S. Post Office is ever asked to perform such a
task). Because of this difficulty,
there are professional test-preparation seminars available to prepare for this
exam, and that is how I learned this system. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Pliny
Miles’ “Mnemonic Major System” has become fairly well-known. L. A. Post used it to remember his U.
S. Army serial number (3,181,853):
“Once I had translated this into <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">My
two feet fail me</i>, I was not likely to forget it” (Post, 1932: 106). Most
people who learn this system create their own set of words to represent the
numbers 11 through 99. That way,
it is not necessary to waste time thinking of a word to use. For example, I always use “tin” for 12,
“Nero” for 24, and “Chevy” for 68.
It is also possible to memorize a complete set of 3-consonant words to
represent the numbers from 100 through 999. Thus, “nomad” = 231, “sheriff” = 648, “Kickapoo” = 779, “Yellowknife” = 528, and so on. William D. Hersey’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Blueprints for Memory</i> (1990) presents a
complete set of these (pp. 117-132).
There are also computer programs written for this purpose (e. g.
soundnumbers.com), which will provide a list of possible equivalents for any
series of digits.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Dominic System<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
A very creative way of memorizing
numbers was devised by Dominic O’Brien.
One begins with a key:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
1 = A</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
2 = B</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
3 = C</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
4 = D</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
5 = E</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
6 = S</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
7 = G</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
8 = H</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
9 = N</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
0 = O</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Next, it is necessary to think of a person to represent
every number from 00 to 99, whose initials correspond to that number. For example, 63 could be Santa Claus,
15 could be Albert Einstein, and 78 could be George Harrison. For each person, a characteristic
action is associated (Santa Claus putting gifts under the Christmas tree,
Albert Einstein writing equations on a chalkboard, George Harrison playing the
guitar). The subject (the person himself) will be used to indicate the first two
digits, while the predicate (the person’s characteristic action) will be used
to indicate the third and fourth digits.
Thus, “Einstein writing on the board” represents 1515, while “Einstein
playing the guitar” represents 1578.
“George Harrison delivering presents” is 7863. “Santa Claus playing the guitar” is 6378 (Hale-Evans, 2006).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Expanding memory systems<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Instead
of memorizing words of three or more consonants (“Kickapoo”) to represent large
numbers, it is possible to expand the two-digit series by another means. Assuming that one has memorized a
series of symbols for the numbers from 00 to 99, the set can be expanded by
using a “key” like the following:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1
= frozen in ice</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2
= covered with oil</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3
= in flames</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
4
= pulsating violently</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
5
= made of velvet</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
6
= completely transparent</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
7
= giving off a fragrance</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
8
= made of rubber</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
9
= covered with hair</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
0
= chrome-plated</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
This way, to remember the number 871, we take a cat (the
symbol for 71), and imagine that it is made of rubber (8). A cat frozen in ice would represent the
number 171. A Chevy (68) in flames
(3) = 368. A baby (99) covered
with hair (9) = 999. To expand
further, we need another key:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1
= red</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2
= orange</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3
= yellow</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
4
= green</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
5
= blue</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
6
= indigo</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
7
= violet</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
8
= white</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
9
= grey</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
0
= black</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
These will represent thousands, so a red Chevy in flames =
1368, a cat made of green rubber = 4871, and so on (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Expanding memory systems</i>, 1998).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Gematria <o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Hebrew, along with Greek and a
number of other languages, does not use numerals, but instead uses letters to
represent numbers. Thus, any word
can also be read as a number. For
example, the word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bavel</i> (“Babylon”)
has the consonants <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">B-B-L</i>. Since B represents 2 and L represents
300, the word has a numerical value of 304. The word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tov</i> (“good”) is
written <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">T-W-B</i> (9 + 6 + 2), so its
numerical value is 17. Words can
quickly be found to represent most numbers, and there are also published lists
available. Phrases can also be used
in place of single words. The
system is extremely versatile since, unlike a decimal system, the letters can
be used in any order without altering their numerical value.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Non-Western Mnemonic Systems<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Memorization continues to play a
very important part in education in most parts of the world, just as it did in
the West until historically recent times, when “the memory has been effectively
unloaded into books” (Gerhardsson 1998: 123), or into computers. Memorization is especially associated
with the educational systems of the world’s major religions (Judaism, Islam,
Hinduism, Confucianism). In all of
these traditions, students are expected to memorize vast quantities of material
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">verbatim</i>, such as the entire <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qur’an</i>, the entire Torah and Mishnah, or
the entire corpus of the Confucian classics. In general, students at the elementary levels memorize the
material without understanding it; indeed, often without even understanding the
language in which the texts are recited.
“The material is first committed to memory, and then an attempt
at understanding is undertaken” (Gerhardsson 1998: 126).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In light of all that I have been
able to find out about the Western mnemotechnical systems, it seems likely that
parallel systems should have arisen in each of these non-Western
traditions. Material on this is
not easy to find, and probably I have only scratched the surface. Nevertheless, “it is only to be
expected <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">prima facie</i> that certain
mnemonic observations are made in every milieu in which large quantities of
oral material are transmitted” (Gerhardsson, 1998: 150). In this section, I will present what I
have been able to discover about these non-Western mnemonic techniques, based
on interviews and published sources.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Memorization in Judaism<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
Hebrew Torah and other scriptures, as well as the Mishnah and the Talmud, are
regarded primarily as works of oral literature. When questions arise as to the “reading” of a text, the
issue is resolved not by consulting a printed edition but through a group
comparison of its oral transmission.
A student learning a text for the first time was taught to repeat it
several hundred times, until it was “in his purse”; subsequent review (as, for
example, a weekly portion of the Torah) involved fewer repetitions (24 times
and 40 times are mentioned). The
Talmud (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Taanim</i> 7b-8a) states, “If you
have a pupil for whom the study of the Talmud appears to be heavy as iron,
that is because his knowledge of the Mishnah is not fluent” (Gerhardsson, 1998:
105-106). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Initial
emphasis was placed on the correct repetition of the entire text, without
regard to comprehension. Only
after this task was accomplished was attention given to the meaning of the text. “The object of the elementary training was to transmit the
whole Bible without any attempt to understand it. Therefore, mnemonics were used, and usually the memorization
was based on ‘. . . mechanical associations, arbitrary, ingenious aids [and]
endless repetitions. . . According to Morris, ‘. . . the history of education
knows no parallel to this collective feat of memory’” (Phillips, 1956).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Like
the European monks, rabbinic students used the principles of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">divisio</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">compositio</i> (dividing and collecting). This was accomplished through the division of the </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Torah into 54 sections called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">parashot</i>. This made it
possible for students to study one <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">parashah</i>
each week. Each <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">parashah</i> was in turn divided into seven <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">aliyot</i>, short sections of approximately
10 verses each, appropriate for a single day’s study. The 10 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">parashot </i>of
the book of Numbers (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Bamidbar</i>) are as
follows:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Bamidbar (1:1-4:20) [“in
the wilderness]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Naso (4:21-7:32) [“take”]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Beha’aloscha (8:1-12:16) [“when
you set up”]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Shlach (Lekha) (13:1-15:41) [“send
(for you)”]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Korach (16:1-18:32) [“Korah”]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Chukas (19:1-22:1) [“decree”]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Balak (22:2-25:9) [“Balak”]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Pinchas (25:10-30:1) [“Phineas”]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Matos (30:2-32:42) [“tribes”]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Masei (33:1-36:13) [“journeys”]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Usually the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">parashah</i>
derives its name from the first distinctive word in the passage. For example, “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bamidbar</i>” is the fifth word, but the first distinctive word, in
Numbers 1; “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">beha’aloscha</i>” is the
eleventh word, but the first distinctive word, in Numbers 8.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Throughout
the Talmud, there appear numerous <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">simanim</i>
(“mnemonic signs”, from the Greek <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">semeion</i>). These take the form of memory-words or
memory-sentences which help the student to remember longer passages. Oftentimes these <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">simanim</i> are “meaningless words or
nonsense verses” (Gerhardsson, 1998: 155). For example, to remember that “the loaves for the wave
offering were seven hand-breadths long and four wide and their horns were four
finger-breadths. The loaves of
shewbread were ten hand-breadths long and five wide and their horns were seven
finger-breadths” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">M Men. </i>XI.4), the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">siman</i> is “ZaDaD YaHaZ”, a meaningless
phrase which may be read (since Hebrew letters also function as numerals) as
“7, 4, 4, 10, 5, 7.” (Gerhardsson, 1998: 155). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Another example is the mnemonic given by R. Yehudah to
remember the Ten Plagues of Egypt: <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De’eTSaQ ‘ADaSH Be’ACHaV</i>. This phrase also is meaningless, or
nearly so, but its ten consonants form an acrostic:<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
D-Ts-Q
= <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dam</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tsefardya</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">qinim</i> (blood,
frogs, lice)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
‘-D-Sh = <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">‘arov</i>,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dever</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">shechin</i> (wild animals, pestilence, boils)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
B-’-Ch-B = <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">barad</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">’arbeh</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">choshech</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">makat bechorot</i> (hail, locusts, darkness,
<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 3.5in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
death of the firstborn)<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 3.5in; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Another Talmudic <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">siman</i>: <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
It may be
learned . . . in respect of MiKDaSH [holiness]. When a <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
sacrifice is
made out of bounds or after time, it is invalidated by intention <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
[Mahshabeth]. In both cases, the illegitimate intention,
even in respect <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
of a part or
portion [Karath] . . . disqualifies it.
Both disqualify only if <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
expressed
during the service in connection with the sprinkling of blood <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
[Dam]. The third [Shelish] day is mentioned in
connection with both in<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
order to
provide an analogy between the two cases (Phillips, 1956).<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Another
kind of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">simanim</i> found in the
Masoretic notes to the Old Testament is used to recall the occurrences of rare
Hebrew words. For example, next to
the word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">yashar</i> (“pleasing”) in I
Chron. 13:4, there appears an Aramaic gloss, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">‘ytyhybt pxrwt’ lqhl’</i> (“the pot was given to the assembly”). The purpose of this is to indicate the
three <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
verses in the Old
Testament where the form <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">yashar</i> is
found: Jer. 27:5, Jer. 18:4, and I Chron. 13:4. The three words of the gloss are Aramaic translations of
distinctive words which occur in each of these three verses (Marcus,
1999). Using this <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">siman</i>, it is possible for one who has
already memorized the Old Testament to quickly compare occurrences of a rare
word.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
Various
mnemonic devices were used at a more elementary level. For example, children learning the
alphabet “were taught to use the shapes of the Hebrew letters as mnemonic aids”
(Phillips, 1956). Thus, the third
and fourth letters of the alphabet, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">gimmel</i>
and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">daleth</i>, are described as follows
in the Talmud (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shabbat</i> 104c): </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
Gimmel Daleth
[means] “show kindness to the poor” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">gemol
dallia</i>). <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
Why is the
foot of the Gimmel stretched toward the Daleth? Because <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
it is fitting
for the benevolent to run after the poor.
And why is the top <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
of the Daleth
stretched out toward the Gimmel?
Because he [the poor] <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
must make
himself available to him. And why
is the face of the Daleth <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
turned away
from the Gimmel? Because he must
give him help in secret, <o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
lest he be
ashamed of him.<o:p></o:p></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
In similar
fashion, the first two letters, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">aleph</i>
and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">beth</i>, were remembered as “learn
wisdom” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">aleph binah</i>). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Waw</i>,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">heth</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">teth</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">yod</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kaph</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">lamed</i> (the seventh through eleventh letters) were remembered as
follows: “If thou doest thus, the
Holy One, blessed be He will sustain [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">zan</i>] thee, be gracious [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hen</i>] unto thee, show goodness [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">meTib</i>] to thee, give thee a heritage [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">yerushah</i>], and bind a crown [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kether</i>] on thee in the world to come [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">‘oLam habah</i>].” Likewise, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">qoph</i>
stands for “holy” [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">qadosh</i>], and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">resh</i> for “wicked” [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">rasha</i>]. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shin</i> stands for “falsehood” [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sheker</i>], and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tau</i> for “truth” [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">emeTh</i>] (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shabbat </i>104c).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Memorization in Islam<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
memorization and oral recitation of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qur’an</i>
is required of all devout Muslims.
The process begins in early childhood. This was described for me by an acquaintance of mine in
graduate school, Mustafiz Rahman, back in 1984. Mr. Rahman was from Bangladesh, so for him Arabic was a
completely alien language.
Nevertheless, he and his classmates were required to recite the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qur’an</i> in Arabic, the emphasis being on
correct pronunciation without regard to meaning or understanding. His father also hired an old man to
come to the house and tutor him in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qur’an</i>
recitation. From time to time his father would listen to him recite, and he would be
beaten if his pronunciation contained any inaccuracies. His father’s fear was that he would not
grow up to be a “good Muslim” if he did not memorize the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qur’an</i> accurately.
This seems not to have worked, however, since at the time I knew him,
Mr. Rahman described himself as having no religion.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
memorization of texts is ideally undertaken as a group. The leader of the group recites the
verses or phrases one by one, and the group repeats after him. I have not been able to find a
published source which describes the details of doing this, but I did find
numerous websites (in English) which are devoted to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qur’an</i> recitation. “Virtual” <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qur’an</i>
recitation groups can be formed on-line, and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sura</i> under study can be downloaded in MP3 format and listened to
repeatedly. Participants
describing their experience of committing the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Qur’an</i> to memory frequently make reference to repeating the passage
several hundred times in a week.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Undoubtedly
many mnemonic devices and tricks have been devised in the context of Qur’anic
memorization, but so far I have not been able to find much specific
information. I did find one very
interesting scheme for memorizing the Arabic alphabet called “Abjad’s Rainbow
Pyramid” [appendix H]. The 28
letters are arranged in a pyramid, with the letter <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ha</i> (“the queen of the letters,” ”the only letter with two ‘hands’”
at the apex. Next come <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ta</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">za</i> (“the two ladies in waiting”), then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kaf</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mim</i>, and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ya</i> (“the three princesses”), then <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ba</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ta</i>,
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tha</i>, and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">fa</i> (“the four letters of the north”) and so on, with seven letters
at the base of the pyramid. Each
of the seven levels is color-coded, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ha</i>
being red, and the descending rows being orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo,
and violet. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
An educational product is marketed in association with this
scheme, consisting of a set of plastic letters in the appropriate colors. Since the Arabic letters have various
forms depending on their position in a word, these plastic letters have joints
so that their “hands” and “tails” can be retracted or extended as necessary—a
wonderful tool for kinesthetic learning! (Abjad Ltd., 2003).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Memorization in Hinduism<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">Like
Judaism and Islam, Hinduism has always placed a high value on large-scale
memorization of texts, often using sophisticated mnemonic techniques. The composition and transmission of the
Vedic texts, some of which may date as far back as 2000 B.C., as well as the
later epics, was entirely oral.
Although these works were not recorded in writing until much later
(around 500 A.D.), there is reason to believe that their transmission remained
faithful to the originals in every detail. This is because of the </span><span style="font-family: Times;">“</span><span style="font-family: Times;">unique and ingenious
techniques employed by the Brahmin priests in preserving the texts intact over
three and half millennia” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A tribute to
Hinduism</i>, n. d.).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">This has been accomplished through the tradition of
reciting the texts in various elaborate ways which ensure that nothing is
altered or lost.</span> “The chief purpose of such methods . . . is to ensure
that not even a syllable of a mantra is altered to the slightest extent. The words are braided together, so to
speak, and recited back and forth . . . The words tally in all these methods of
chanting and there is the assurance that the original form will not be altered”
(Bhattathiry, 2004).<span style="font-family: Times;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">The first way of reciting a text, called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">samhitapatha</i>, is simply to recite the
lines in their usual order, connecting words across word-boundaries according
to the rules of Sanskrit <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sandhi </i>(phonological
processes).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">The second way, called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">padapatha</i>, involves reciting each word individually in its pausal
form, breaking the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sandhi</i>. Compound words are also broken into
their component parts, inserting the word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">iti</i>
(“thus”) between them. Written
recensions of the Vedic texts survive written in both <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">samhitapatha</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">padapatha</i>
form.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times;">Vakyapatha</span></i><span style="font-family: Times;"> is intermediate between <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">samhitapatha</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">padapatha</i>. It involves
some limited use of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sandhi</i>. These three methods (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">samhitapatha</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">padapatha</i>, and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">vakyapatha</i>)
are called </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">prakrtipatha</i>
(natural way of chanting) since the words are recited only once and in their
natural order. (Bhattathiry, 2004).
The other methods are belong to the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">vikrtipatha
</i>(artificial way of chanting) category.<span style="font-family: Times;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">Another way of reciting texts is called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kramapatha </i>(or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">krama parayanam</i>). This
involves reciting the text as a “chain,” the first word with the second word,
then the </span><span style="font-family: Times;">second
word with the third (</span><span style="font-family: Times;">1,2; 2,3; 3,4; 4,5; 5,6; 6,7 and so on).</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;">Another
way, called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jatapatha</i> (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jataparayanam</i>), is similar to <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kramapatha</i>, but involves reversing each
set of two words before continuing to the next. Thus, one recites the first word with the second word, then
the second word with the first,; the second with the third, then the third with
the second (1,2,2,1; 2,3,3,2; 3,4,4,3 and so on) (Sri Jagadguru trust, n.d.).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;">Still
another way to recite the text is called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sikhapatha</i>. Here, the pattern consists of three
words instead of two (1,2,3,3,2,1; 2,3,4,4,3,2; 3,4,5,5,4,3 and so on)
(Bhattathiry, 2004).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">The
recitation method known as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ghanapatha</i>
is exceedingly complex. “</span><span style="font-family: Times;">There are four types of this method. Here also the words of a mantra are
chanted back and forth and there is a system of permutation and combination in
the chanting. To explain all of it
would be like conducting a class of arithmetic” (Bhattathiry, 2004). In one type of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ghanapatha</i>, </span><span style="font-family: Times;">the word order is 1221123321123, 2332234432234, etc. “Here,
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">swara </i></span>will
modify according to the rules of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">swara</i>,
depending on how the phrase is split.
There are probably only around 200 "ghanapathi's", who can
recite the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ghanapatha</i> of their whole <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">samhita</i> portion in the whole of India”
(Saxena, 1998).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
There
are several other methods as well, including <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">varnakrama</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">malapatha</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">rekhapatha</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dhvajapatha</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">dandapatha</i>,
and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">rathapatha</i>.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 16.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: Times;">Concerning
these various methods of recitation, it is said, “</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Padapatha</i> is twice as<u> </u>beneficial as s<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">amhitapatha</i>; <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">kramapatha</i>
is four times more beneficial; the method called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">varnakrama</i> is a hundred times more beneficial; while <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jatapatha</i> is a thousand times more
beneficial” (Saraswathi, n. d.) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Memorization in China<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">verbatim </i>memorization of the Confucian classics was the cornerstone
of Chinese education, and was the basis of the government examinations which
qualified scholars for bureaucratic positions. Many Chinese scholars were famous for their feats of memory, including Ni Heng, “who remembered all the stone
tomb inscriptions after he returned from a long journey” and Lu Jiangdao, “who
after one reading could recite books both forward and backward” (Spence, 1984:
156).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Presumably some sophisticated
memorization techniques were developed over the many centuries that the
examination system was in place, but so far I have not been able to find much
information about them. J. D.
Spence (1984) makes reference to “diligent study along traditional Chinese
lines of repetition and recitation, aided perhaps by the mnemonic poems and
rhyming jingles that were part of current [i. e. 16<sup>th</sup> century] Chinese
memory practice” (p. 4).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Matteo Ricci (1552-1610), one of
the earliest Jesuit missionaries to China, astonished the Chinese by his
ability to master their language.
He accomplished this by means of a system of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i>, which worked especially well for the Chinese language since
it lacks inflectional forms:
“Unlike Greek sentences, which had to be remembered in all their
detailed complexity, a Chinese sentence could be presented in sharp detail as a series of images” (Spence, 1984: 137). These techniques enabled Ricci, after
living in China for many years, to rapidly memorize lists of four or five
hundred Chinese characters (Spence, 1984). In a letter to an acquaintance, Ricci described his success:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
One day, when I was invited to a
party by some holders of the </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
first-level literary degree,
something happened that gave me quite </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
a reputation among them and among
all the other literati in the city.
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The thing was that I had
constructed a Memory Place System for </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
many of the Chinese ideographs, . .
. I told them that they should write </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
down a large number of Chinese
letters in any manner they chose on a </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
sheet of paper, without there being
any order among them, because </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
after reading them only once, I
would be able to say them all by heart </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
in the same way and order in which
they had been written. They did so, </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
writing many letters without any
order, all of which I, after reading them</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
once, was able to repeat by memory
in the manner in which they were </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
written: such that they were all astonished, it seeming to them a
great </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
matter. And I, in order to increase their wonder, began to recite
them all </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
by memory backward in the same
manner, beginning with the very last </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
until reaching the first. By which they all became utterly
astounded and </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
as if beside themselves. And at once they began to beg me to
consent to </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
teach them this divine rule by
which such a memory was made. . . .For </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
in truth this Memory Place System
seems as if it had been invented for </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Chinese letters, for which it has
particular effectiveness and use, in that </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
each letter is a figure that means
a thing (Spence, 1984: 138-139). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ricci
eventually published a treatise in Chinese on<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> ars memorativa</i>, entitled <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jifa
</i>(“Treatise on Mnemonic Arts”), which is one of the better expositions of
the Art of Memory as it was practiced in the Renaissance. However, while “all [the Chinese]
admired the subtlety of the system, not all of them were willing to take the
trouble to learn how to use it” (Spence, 1984: 4). One of Ricci’s students complained that mastering the system
was harder than simply learning through rote repetition: “Though the precepts are the true rules
of memory, one has to have a remarkably fine memory to make any use of them”
(Spence, 1984: 4).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
My
wife, Gloria, is from Taiwan, and in the course of a discussion of the current
paper, I learned from her that the Chinese have a simple and effective way of
remembering numbers by converting them into phrases which have the same sound,
but different meaning. For
example, to remember the number 79 [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ch’ih<sup>1</sup>
chiu<sup>3</sup></i>], one thinks of the phrase “drink wine” [<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ch’ih<sup>1</sup> chiu<sup>3</sup></i>],
which has the same pronunciation but is written with different characters. In cases where this cannot be done, is
sometimes possible to fashion an approximately similar phrase which alters some
of the phonemes but retains the same sequence of tones. This is analogous to rhyming in English, but is somewhat
difficult for our ears to recognize.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Recently, I saw a very interesting
example of a “flat representation” in an exhibit at the Crystal Cathedral on
“The Bible in China.” A large
carving, made from a single piece of wood, depicts 75 stories from the life of
Christ in six horizontal rows. The
sequence begins with the birth of Christ (lower left), and ends with His
crucifixion, resurrection, and ascension (top right).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Japan: the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">goroawase</i>
system<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The
Japanese have developed an ingenious system called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">goroawase</i> for remembering numbers, more flexible than the “major
system” described above, and much easier to use because the numbers are not
only encoded as words, but the words themselves can be arranged to form phrases
which are reminders of what the encoded number represents. This bears some resemblance to Grey’s
mnemonic hexameters.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">goroawase</i>
system is as follows:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
0
= rei, re, o</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
1
= ichi, i, hitotsu, hito, hi, wan</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
2
= ni, futatsu, fu, futa, tsuu</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
3
= san, sa, mitsu, mi</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
4
= yon, yo, shi, yotsu, foa</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
5
= go, itsutsu, itsu</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
6
= roku, ro, mutsu, mu</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
7
= shichi, nana, nanatsu, na</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
8
= hachi, ha, yatsu, ya</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
9
= kyu, ku, kokonotsu, ko</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
The numerous alternate forms arise from archaic stages in
the development of the language, as well as borrowings from Chinese. This provides great flexibility. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Ichi </i>(“one”) can be
used to form more than a hundred other words (Takahashi, n. d.). For example, if one wishes to remember
that America was discovered in 1492, one could use the phrase <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Iyo!
Kuni ga mieta!</i> (“Wow! I
found a country!”). Only the first
part of the phrase (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">iyokuni</i>) is
needed to encode “1492”; the rest of the sentence is added to complete the
associated meaning (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mnemonic goroawase
system</i>, n.d.).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Goroawase</i> is familiar to everyone in
Japan, and is used in education.
One of my students, Hosana Anjiki (personal communication, April 11,
2006), reports as follows: </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;"> The first time I
learned about GOROAWASE was in the history class. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;">When I was in the
elementary school, we needed to memorize a lot of dates. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;">And teacher taught us
that by using GOROAWASE we could memorize <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;">them easily. </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 15px;">For example, 1192 ( IIKUNI TSUKUROU
KAMAKURA BAKUFU)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 15px;">means "lets make a good
country." This is the year that YORITOMO </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 15px;"></span><span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;">MINAMOTO made Japan's feudal government
in EDO. So, we memorized </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 15px;">all of </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 15px;">the dates with GOROAWASE. And this
was actually very helpful. </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 15px;">And there are</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 15px;"> many books that taught us
many GOROAWASE of dates </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 15px;">in history. So, almost </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 15px;">all students get
that kind of books and learned </span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: 15px;">GOROAWASE.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;"> Also, we use GOROAWASE to memorize phone
numbers. In the <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;">TV commercial there are a lot of phone
numbers using GOROAWASE <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;">and making people memorize and call. For example, in the commercial <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;">about hair restoration, at the end of the
commercial they sing a song, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;">"call 0120-KUROGURO FUSAFUSA (0120
is Japanese toll free #, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;">and 9696-2323, meaning angry and
luxuriant.) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;"> So, I think everyone in Japan know how to
do this. You know we can <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;">create GOROAWASE by ourselves. I always
do GOROAWASE to <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;">remember the number, it is easier for me.
My birthday is April, 3rd so, <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;">I usually told people that my birthday is
"SHIMI NO HI" This means
<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: black; font-family: Times; font-size: 11pt;">"pigmented spot”.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
One Japanese website (http://www.asahi-net.or.jp/~iu8y-tti/goro01.html)
lists <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">goroawase</i> for several thousand
numbers. <span style="color: black; font-family: Times;">In cases where it is difficult or
impossible to represent a number precisely with an appropriate phrase, it is
permissible to approximate it.</span>
Here are some <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">goroawase</i> from
the Yokohama District Yellow Pages:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
647418 = mushi-nashi-ii-ha (“no
decayed teeth, good teeth”) [dentist]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
0120449852 =
omoi-ni-wa-shikkari-yoku-hakobu (“heavy articles carefully safely carried”) [moving
company]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
307645 = mina-mujiko (“everyone
with no accident”) [driving school]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
375476 = mina-koshi-yoku-naru
(“everyone gets better back”) [chiropractor]</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
812074 = hai-tsumari-nashi (“no
more clogging”) [plumber] (Takahashi, n. d.)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Memorization in Korea<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Korean students do a great deal of
rote memorization. This is often
accomplished by writing out the same material, such as English sentences, over and
over again until it fills up several pages. These are known as “black papers” because they are covered
with ink. Often, Korean students
show their parents how hard they have been studying by displaying how many
pages of “black paper” they have created in the course of an evening.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In order to learn English
vocabulary, Korean students often devise Korean sentences which associate the
English word with its meaning in Korean.
For example, to remember the meaning of “church”, one student told me he
thinks of Churchill, and how he won World War Two with God’s help. Another student remembered “church” by somehow associating it with the Korean phrase <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">cha-cha-da</i> (“knock him out” [as in
boxing]). Students share these
sentences with each other, and especially clever ones are extensively borrowed,
since they’re quite hard to devise.
One student told me she memorizes 100 new English words each day (this
strategy seems not to be the best use of her time, however, since she’s failing
most of her classes!).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Koreans also make some limited use
of a system like the Japanese <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">goroawase</i>. For example, many realtors use the
number 4989, which sounds like <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sagu-palgu</i>
(“buy and sell”).
Churches often use 9191, which sounds like <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">guwun-guwun</i> (“salvation”).
Moving companies use 2424, which sounds like a phrase meaning
“move-move”).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Another Korean student told me
about a well-known seminary, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Gwang-naru
Jang-shin-dae</i>, which publishes a famous picture book of mnemonics for
memorizing the contents of every chapter in the Bible. These take the form of “flat
representations,” all the pictures for each book being combined into a single
composition. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u>Criticisms of Artificial Memory<o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
At least one study found that
persons using the method of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">loci</i> as a
mnemonic device performed no better than a control group at the task of
memorizing 25 “high imagery words” (Carter, n. d.). On the other hand, L. A. Post (1932) found it to be highly effective as a tool for memorizing lines of poetry in
order. It seems to me that the
Carter study was flawed in that the material for memorization consisted of
“high imagery words.” Probably
most people would be able to perform this task successfully with or without a
mnemonic strategy. A task
involving “low imagery” data (such as abstract nouns or numbers) would have
been a better test of the system.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
D. A. and E. C. Laird (1960) are
derisive of traditional mnemonic systems:
“On no other topic of psychology have there been as many useful and
well-confirmed discoveries which make the old “systems” seem like one-horse
shays in a jet age” (p. 7).
However, their book, entitled <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Techniques
for Efficient Remembering</i>, firmly rooted in the behaviorism of the 1950s,
in fact presents no techniques at all.
Examples of the “discoveries” this book presents: Writing things down,
breaking down long numbers into groups, use grouping and rhythm, visualize,
“memorize by meanings rather than by sounds,” “try to remember the whole thing, not a bit at a
time,” “associate it with things you already remember”. Set goals. Get enough sleep. Repeat what you want to remember. Preview what you need to learn.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
For Matteo Ricci, at least,
mnemonics worked astonishingly well.
Although the material is sometimes difficult to locate, there is a long
tradition and a vast literature on the subject of mnemonics. Although some of the techniques seem
difficult, cumbersome, and absurd, many of them are truly ingenious. These methods have been developed over
a long period of time by extremely clever people living in many different
cultures. Many of them have been
used and refined over many centuries. Probably everyone could benefit from some
acquaintance with this subject; there is surely some method which will appeal
to each learner and to each learning style. There is also much room for creativity and personal
preference. Stefan Rieger (2000)
describes mnemonics as an arsenal of “pedagogical weapons against forgetting” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p</i><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times;">ä</span>dagogische Waffe gegen das Vergessen</i>) (p.
392). Browning (1983) gives some
excellent advice: “As you become familiar with mnemonic systems you will see
you can make sense out of almost every piece of information you want to remember. You simply select the correct memory tool to fit each case”
(p. 4). </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Above all, it must be understood that
mnemonics are a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">technology</i>; the
German word for “mnemonic systems” is <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Seelenmaschinen</i>
(“soul-machines”). This phrase
describes them well—they enable us to accomplish tasks that we could not
accomplish without their assistance.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times;">Rieger, Stefan (2000). Der Wahnsinn des Merkens: F</span><span style="font-family: Times;">ü</span><span style="font-family: Times;">r eine Archäologie der Mnemotechnik. In Berns, J. J., & Neuber, W. (Eds.),
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Seelenmaschinen: Gattungstraditionen,
Funktionen und Leistungsgrenzen der Mnemotechniken vom späten
Mittelalter bis zum Beginn der Moderne</i> (pp. 379-406). Wien: Böhlau Verlag.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Rossi, P.
(1992). Le arti della
memoria: Rinascite e trasfigurazioni. In Bolzoni, L., & Corsi,
P. (Eds.), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">La cultura della memoria (pp.
13-34).</i>Bologna: <span style="font-family: Times;">Societ</span><span style="font-family: Times;">à</span><span style="font-family: Times;"> Editrice</span> il
Mulino.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Saraswathi, C. (n. d.) <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hindu
dharma</i>. Retrieved May 4, 2006,
from http://www.kamakoti.org/hindudharma/part5/referp5.htm</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Saxena, S. (1998).
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Mantrapushpam</i>. Retrieved May 4, 2006, from http://www.advaita vedanta.org/archives/advaita-l/1998-October/010269.html</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times; font-size: 12.5pt;">Spence, J.
D. (1984). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The memory palace of Matteo
Ricci</i>. New York: Viking Penguin.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times; font-size: 12.5pt;">Sri
Jagadburu Trust (n. d.). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">What is veda? Why veda rakshanam is important?</i> Retrieved
April 19, 2006, from http://srijagadguru.org/page2.html<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times; font-size: 12.5pt;">Takahashi,
H. (n. d.). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Memoria technica Japonica: A study of mnemonics</i>. Retrieved April
19, 2006, from http://users.lk.net/~stepanov/mnemo/takahae.html<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times; font-size: 12.5pt;">Taylor, K.
N. (1956). <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The
Bible in pictures for little eyes.</i>
Chicago: Moody Press.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="font-family: Times; font-size: 12.5pt;">A tribute to Hinduism</span></i><span style="font-family: Times; font-size: 12.5pt;"> (n. d.). Retrieved April 19, 2006, from http://atributetohinduism.com/Glimpses_IX.htm</span><span style="font-family: Times;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<o:p> </o:p> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Yates, F. A. (1966).
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">The art of memory.</i> Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: .5in;">
<o:p> </o:p><u><o:p><span style="text-decoration: none;"> </span></o:p></u></div>
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<u>Appendix</u> (photocopies attached)</div>
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A. II Kings (17<sup>th</sup>
century engraving) (Rieger, 2000: 392).</div>
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B. Johannes
Buno: 17. Jahrhundert (Rieger, 2000: 647).</div>
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C. The second
image of Luke, from <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">A method for
recollecting the Gospels</i> (ca. 1470) (Carruthers
& Ziolkowski, 2002: 283).</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
D.<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Viridarium Aristotelis ethicum</i>
(Rieger, 2000: 499).</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
E. Filippo
Gesualdo: Il corpo umano come sistema di luoghi (Plutosofia, 1592) </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
(Eco, 1992: 41).<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></div>
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<br /></div>
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F. Mnemonic images for the ten commandments (Best, 1980:
67-68).</div>
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<br /></div>
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G. Mnemonic images for the book of Acts (Best, 1980: 72-73).</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
H.<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Abjad’s rainbow pyramid</i>. Abjad Ltd.
(2003). </div>
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<br />Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-83092969023998080692012-01-27T18:12:00.000-08:002012-01-27T18:12:04.179-08:00The Jesuit Mission in China (2005)<!--StartFragment-->
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>THE JESUIT MISSION IN CHINA:<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>THE IMPACT OF THE WEST ON CHINA <o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>AND CHINA’S
IMPACT ON THE WEST<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Final Project<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>ISCL 742<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The History of Christianity<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>in Missiological Perspective<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Presented to <o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dr. Donald E. Douglas,
Ph.D.<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">School of Intercultural Studies<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 2.0in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Biola
University</b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>by Timothy P. Grove<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>20
December 2005<o:p></o:p></b></div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>There
has been direct, though sporadic, contact between Europe and China since very
early times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Greeks and Romans
came to realize that another great empire existed far to the east, and referred
to the Chinese as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Seres</i> (from this
was derived the word <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">serica</i>, meaning
silk garments).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There were several
Roman embassies to China during the first and second centuries A.D.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These expeditions proceeded by way of
the Red Sea to the eastern coast of India, and then passed overland through
Burma into Yunnan and thence to China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>These embassies yielded little—apparently the Chinese viewed the Roman
ambassadors as merely the representatives of one more petty western kingdom,
failing to recognize the existence of a powerful western empire, or to realize
the potential importance of cultivating ties with the West.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Meanwhile, the Silk Road developed as
an important trade route between China and the Near East, and there is an
account of an attempt by some Chinese silk-weavers to introduce silk
cultivation in the Eastern Empire during the reign of Justinian (Leibniz).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Cosmas Indicopleustes, in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Topographia Christiana</i> (c547) gave China
the more correct name <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tzin</i>—clear
evidence of some degree of actual communication with that distant empire
(Leibniz).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nothing further came of
this, however, and there was no further direct contact between China and Europe
until the 13<sup>th</sup> century, although Chinese goods continued to pass
westward over the Silk Road. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Meanwhile, in 635 A.D., Nestorian
missionaries led by A-lo-pen, a Syrian, established themselves in China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This important mission had considerable
success, as commemorated by the Nestorian Monument of 781 A.D.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The downfall of the Nestorian mission
came swiftly, however, when in 845 the Taoist Emperor Wu Tsung proscribed
Buddhism and Christianity as well, noting that there were then “3000 monks from
Ta-ch’in [Syria] and Mu-hu-po” [Mesopotamia?] (Neill 1990: 96).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Christianity had virtually disappeared
by the end of the 10<sup>th</sup> century, though some Nestorian Christians
remained here and there, especially along the Silk Road.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Mongol Conquest of China
brought Christianity again into prominence, since a number of the Mongol tribes
and several important Mongol generals were Nestorian Christians.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hearing of this, the Catholic church
made its first attempts to extend its influence to China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>John of Monte Corvino, a Franciscan,
arrived in Beijing in 1294 and served as Archbishop of Beijing from1308 until
his death in 1328.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He had papal
permission to celebrate mass and other sacraments in the Mongol language.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He claimed to have baptized 6,400
converts by 1305, though the progress of his work was slowed by conflict with
the Nestorians (Camps 1995).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A
number of friars from Europe visited Mongolia and China in those days,
including William de Rubruquis and Odoric of Pordenone, both of whom left
written accounts of their travels.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent">
John of Monte Corvino died without an immediate
successor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Eventually, in response
to an embassy of Chinese Christians, at least two later archbishops were
appointed:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nicholas (1338) and
William of Prato (1370).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Very
little is known of these men, though Matteo Ricci found evidence that they had
actually arrived in China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With
the overthrow of the Yuan dynasty (1368), the Ming rulers sought to eliminate
all foreign influences, including Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A few Christians remained, but Christianity virtually
disappeared, for the second time, from Chinese consciousness (Camps 1995).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ricci came across a few Nestorian
families in Nanjing and elsewhere in central China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, “the only traces of Christianity among most of them
were that they seemed to have some knowledge of the psalter and they ate pork,
over which they made the sign of the cross” (Spence 1984: 119).</div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Travel
between China and Europe was extremely difficult, dangerous, and expensive—the
trip took two years, and may be compared to traveling to the Moon in our own
day.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because of the immense
geographical separation between China and Europe, the two cultures developed in
complete isolation from each other.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>When contact between East and West became more frequent, the reports of
travelers to China occasioned great excitement in Europe:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>these were accounts of a highly
developed yet completely alien civilization, amounting almost to news from
another world.</div>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>These
contacts eventually had a number of important influences on European thought,
including Christian theology, philosophy, linguistics, history, and political
science.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Because of China’s
cultural isolationism, the influence of Europe on China was less noticeable,
though the importance of European technological advances was widely recognized
in China before 1700.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By far the
most important factor in the early cultural exchanges between China and the
West was the Jesuit presence in China, beginning in 1554 and continuing until
the suppression of the Order in 1773.</div>
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In 1567, the Jesuit Juan Bautista
Ribeira had tried unsuccessfully to convert the Chinese in the region of Macao,
and concluded that “there is no hope of converting them, unless one has
recourse to force and unless they give way before the soldiers.” Another
unsuccessful Jesuit missionary, Melchior Nunes Barreto, wrote a letter urging
Christian rulers to “force the sovereign of China to grant to the missionaries
the right to preach and to the natives the right to hear the truth.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to the Franciscan
missionary Alfaro, “With or without soldiers, to wish to enter China is to
attempt to reach the moon” (Dunne 1962: 16-17).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Alessandro Valignano, who arrived
in Macao in 1577 as superior of all the Jesuit missions in the Far East,
favored an entirely different approach:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“The only possible way to penetration will be utterly different from
that which has been adopted up to now in all the other missions in these
countries” (Dunne 1962: 17).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
new approach which Valignano advocated has generally been called accommodation,
and this approach characterized the Jesuit mission in China for more than a
century, until papal intervention put an end to it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Jesuit Michele Ruggeri expressed the Order’s willingness
to adapt in a famous sentence:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“Siamo fatti Cini <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ut Christo Sinas
lucrifaciamus</i>” (“Let us become Chinese so that we may win the Chinese to
Christ”) (Criveller 1997: 36).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
long-term results of this policy of cultural accommodation, and the degree to
which the Jesuits might have succeeded in converting China to Christianity had
they been allowed to pursue their policy without interference, will never be
known.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nevertheless, their work in
China remains one of the most fascinating chapters in the history of Christian
missions.</div>
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<h1>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">Ricci, Schall, and Verbiest</span></h1>
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<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
most famous of the Jesuit missionaries to China were Matteo Ricci (1552-1610),
Johann Adam Schall von Bell (1591-1666), and Ferdinand Verbiest (1623-1688).</div>
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Ricci, known in Chinese as Li Ma-tou, was a native of
Macerata in the Papal States.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He
arrived in Macao in 1582 and quickly set about mastering the Chinese
language.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ricci was a student of
the Renaissance <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ars memorativa</i>, the
training of the memory through the use of mnemonic systems.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On one occasion in 1595, he
demonstrated his ability by reading over a list of over 400 random Chinese characters,
then repeating the list in reverse.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In this way, he succeeded in mastering the Chinese writing system and
committing the Confucian Classics to memory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Spence notes that Francesco Panigarola, who may have tutored
Ricci in these methods, was able to remember 100,000 specific items of
information (Spence 1984).</div>
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“After his entry into China, Ricci
became a Chinese with the Chinese.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He adopted Chinese manners, diet, sleep patterns, and clothing, down to
cuffs, belt, sash, hat, and colors.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He gave up grape wine for rice wine, no small matter for an Italian”
(Sebes 1988:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>42). The purpose of
this quiet infiltration of Chinese society was to convert the ruling class, and
ultimately the Chinese emperor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Ricci felt that if this could be accomplished, the conversion of the
entire Chinese nation was assured.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The open proclamation of the Gospel might jeopardize this plan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"I do not think that we shall
establish a church," Ricci wrote in 1596, "but instead a room for
discussion and we will say Mass privately . . . because one proceeds more
effectively and with greater fruit here through conversations than through
formal sermons” (Dunne 1962: 46).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Again in 1598 he wrote, "The hour had not yet arrived to begin preaching
here the holy Gospel” (Dunne 1962: 55).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In 1601, Ricci was finally
successful in obtaining permission to live in Peking.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He presented two chiming clocks to the Chinese emperor, and
was requested to adjust and maintain them in the future. He was well received
because of his mastery of the Chinese language in both its spoken and written
forms, so remarkable in a foreigner.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Ricci also impressed the Chinese with his knowledge of mathematics and
astronomy, and by displaying an accurate world-map, drawn with China in the
center.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He succeeded in making
several influential Chinese converts, including Xu Ganggi, the most powerful
official at the Chinese court.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ming History</i> states: "Those who
came from the West were intelligent and were men of great capacity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their only purpose was to preach
religion, with no desire for government honors or for material gain.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For this reason those who were given to
novelties were greatly attracted to them” (Chan 1988: 160).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Ricci soon had to confront the
problem of how to deal with the Confucianism which pervaded Chinese society
from top to bottom.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unlike
Buddhism, which was early identified as fundamentally opposed to Christianity,
Confucianism's specifically religious teachings were only implicit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This made Confucianism less readily
identifiable as a pagan religion, and suggested to Ricci and others that some
kind of compromise might be workable.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Ricci believed that Christianity
and Confucianism (in its "original", not its Neo-Confucian form)
could be reconciled to stand against Buddhism and Taoism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He obtained a good grasp of
Neo-Confucian metaphysics so that he could argue for an interpretation of
Confucianism which could be reconciled with Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, he used passages in the Confucian
classics to demonstrate the immortality of the soul and the existence of
hell.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In his approach to ethics, Ricci
tried to show the parallels between Confucianism and Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, he related the concept of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hsiao</i> (filial piety) to the Ten
Commandments, and noted the similarity between Confucius' version of the Golden
Rule and Jesus' teaching in Matthew 7:12.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He also sought to show how the Confucian values of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pao </i>(reciprocity) and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">te</i>
(personal virtues) could be incorporated into Christianity. <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Ricci
believed there was no essential contradiction between the two systems of
thought, but that the ethical teachings of Confucianism could be supplemented
and perfected by those of Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Thus, while Confucius taught that the expression of love should be
differentiated in accordance with its object, Christianity taught universal
love for all men.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Ricci's understanding of and
respect for Confucian ethical teachings won him many admirers among the
educated Chinese.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the same
time, he did not hesitate to attack Chinese practices which could not be reconciled
with Christian ethics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was
outspoken in his condemnation of homosexuality (widely practiced among the
educated elite in Ming times), and he insisted that converts dismiss their
concubines before he would consent to baptize them.</div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Ricci
believed that he had found evidence in the Confucian classics that the ancient
Chinese had once known and venerated the God of the Bible, to whom the classics
referred as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shang-ti</i> ("The Lord
on High") or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">T'ien</i>
("Heaven").<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He claimed
that the Chinese were a branch of the people of Judaea who had migrated to the
East in ancient times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ricci
assured the Chinese that all of their ancient sages had been believers in the
One God and hence were in Heaven, but that subsequent generations had forgotten
God's existence. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Ricci wrote numerous books in
Chinese, including <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ki ho yuen pen</i>
(“Principles of Geometry”), which was a translation of Euclid’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Elements</i>, and<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> Si kouo ki fa </i>(“Art of Artificial Memory”), in which he presented
his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">ars memorativa </i>to the Chinese
(Pfister).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ricci was a real Renaissance Man.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His treatise <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De
Amicitia</i> (Chiao yu lun, 1601), which was modeled on a similar work of
Cicero, proved extremely popular among the Chinese.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ricci’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">T’ien tchou
che i</i> (De Deo vera ratio), a treatise on metaphysics, and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ki jen che p’ien</i> (“The ten paradoxes”),
a set of dialogues, were widely read by the educated Chinese of his day<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Pfister).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Still, according to Jacques Gernet,
Ricci’s philosophical assumptions ultimately worked against the success of the
Jesuit mission, since his cosmology was “pre-Copernican and mediaeval,” and his
Aristotelian and Ptolemaic view of the universe as closed and finite was at
odds with Chinese cosmology (Mungello 1989: 66).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The form of learning which the Jesuits brought to China was
thoroughly Aristotelian in its emphasis on systematization and logic and its
dependence on authority and neglect of empirical investigation (Mungello 1989).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Ricci’s account of China, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De Christiana expeditione apud Sinas</i>,
was published in Europe in 1615.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This work was enormously influential, and had been translated into six
European languages by 1625 (Mungello 1989).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Ricci and other Jesuits entered
China with the intention of spending the rest of their lives there.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In many cases, they were profoundly
changed by “the power of Chinese culture to sinify foreigners” (Mungello 1989:
49).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ricci, for example, came to
praise Chinese as more concise and elegant than Latin, and also developed great
respect for Confucius.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Indeed,”
he wrote, “if we critically examine [Confucius’] actions and sayings as they
are recorded in history, we shall be forced to admit that he was the equal of
the pagan philosophers and superior to most of them” (Mungello 1989: 57).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In later years, the Confucian classics
were routinely used by the Jesuits as a means of language acquisition.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>So
great was Ricci's admiration for Confucianism that he came to believe that the
teachings of Confucius should be incorporated into Christian ethics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"Ricci's Chinese writings suggest
he had become a convert to Confucianism in the process of teaching
Christianity" (Young 1980: 43).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Jesuits adopted a policy of
accommodation to the state cult of Confucianism, but of opposition to Buddhism,
which was seen as incompatible with Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Chinese phrase <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">buru
yifo</i> (“supplement Confucianism, replace Buddhism”) was repeatedly used to
summarize this strategy (Wills 1994).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In their learned discussions with Confucian intellectuals, Ricci and his
successors proposed an approach to metaphysical inquiry through <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">gewu</i> (“investigation of things”—this was
the mathematical, astronomical, geographical and engineering science which so
impressed the Chinese), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">qiongli </i>(“fathoming
principles”), and finally <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">zhitian</i>
(“knowing God”).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, the success
of the Jesuits in scientific pursuits would result in greater openness to the
claims of Christianity (Standaert 1994).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>By 1640, the Jesuits had converted fifty palace women, forty eunuchs,
and over one hundred other members of the imperial court (Spence 1969).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Adam Schall (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">T’ang Jo-wang</i>), a native of Cologne, arrived in Beijing in 1622,
and soon distinguished himself by accurately predicting an eclipse of the moon
on October 8, 1623 (Attwater 1963).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Schall and his assistants were placed in charge of a reform of the
Chinese calendar.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They presented a
telescope and an armillary sphere to the emperor, and were permitted to set
these up in the Forbidden City.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>They also impressed the emperor by their accurate prediction of eclipses
of both the sun and moon in January 1638.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Manchu invasion and the fall of the Ming dynasty in 1644 could have jeopardized
the success of the Jesuit mission, but Schall made a formal petition to the
emperor, demonstrating the western method of calculating an eclipse of the sun
for September 1<sup>st</sup> of that year (Spence 1969).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The details of Schall’s calculations
were confirmed precisely when the eclipse occurred, and in the end Adam Schall
became a close confidante of the new emperor, Shun-chih, who called him <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ma-fa</i> (“honorable father” in Manchu),
granted him unlimited access to his presence, and allowed him to dispense with
the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">k’ou-t’ou</i> (Väth 1933). It is
interesting to note that from this time on, the Jesuits faced the challenge of
learning Manchu as well as Chinese!</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In 1645, the emperor appointed
Schall director of the Bureau of Astronomy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Schall accepted this position with some reluctance, since
the Bureau of Astronomy was a division of the Bureau of Rites and existed for
the purpose of forecasting auspicious and inauspicious days and times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, its responsibilities
included the publication not only of the official Calendar, but also the
so-called “Yellow Calendar” (from the color of its covers) which purveyed
information pertinent to Chinese astrology and superstitious beliefs,
apportioning the days and months of the year to twenty good or evil spirits,
and associating ten other spirits with their habitation of rooms in houses and
parts of the body (Väth 1933). The Yellow Calendar was published with the
signature of the director of the Bureau of Astronomy, and there was some
question as to whether Schall ought to ascribe his name to such a document, in
which superstition played so large a part.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, Schall’s duties included astrological weather
forecasting (in the tradition of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Farmer’s
Almanac</i>), and the practice of geomancy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This ancient Chinese practice involved divining the hidden
location of such things as “white tigers” and “green dragons” within the earth,
with a view to choosing the best locations for buildings and tombs, as well as
selecting the proper days to begin their construction (Väth 1933).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Since Schall himself was not
directly involved in any of these practices, he determined that scruples about
them were of little weight when compared to the importance of his position for
the continued success of the Jesuit mission in China.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>However,
in 1649 two of his assistants, Gabriel de Magalh<span style="color: black;">ã</span>es
and Luigi Buglio, denounced him to his Jesuit superiors for his involvement in
promoting superstitious practices.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Schall defended himself in a letter to the general of the Society
(1652), in which he denied the charge that the Bureau of Astronomy was in
effect practicing divination, although he admitted that “we do attribute to the
stars a certain influence on human actions; we seek to expound celestial
phenomena; we mention the names of spirits in the calendar, but in all this we
pay every regard to God” (Attwater 1963: 137-138).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In his defense, Schall noted the example of the Magi who
followed a star to find the infant Jesus and the eclipse which occurred when He
was crucified; Schall also argued that the western use of Mercury, Venus, Mars,
Jupiter, and Saturn to designate planets was just as much an “invocation of
spirits” as the examples found in the Yellow Calendar. After much deliberation,
the Society finally decided in Schall’s favor in 1664.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Like most educated people of his
time, including Galileo, Kepler, Melancthon, and Leibniz, Schall was a believer
in astrology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This belief was
strongly supported by Aquinas himself, who wrote that “The stars influence the
bodies of men and thus their temperaments, which are affected by their bodily
constitution. … At the time of birth this influence is especially strong, which
is why a largely accurate horoscope may then be cast of the course of this or that
human life” (Attwater 1963: 138).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Schall was also a believer in mundane astrology, which seeks to
associate signs in the heavens with political events.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He believed that the comets he had observed in Goa in 1618,
on his way to China, had portended disaster for the German, Chinese, and Mogul
empires, as well as the death of Gustavus Adolphus (Väth 1933). </div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent">
Schall is frequently depicted in Chinese dress, with
the emblem of a crane embroidered across the front of his tunic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One of his most interesting innovations
was to change the measurement of the ecliptic circle from 365 and a quarter
degrees (the Chinese practice, corresponding to the length of the year) to 360
degrees (Väth 1933).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Ferdinand Verbiest (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Nan Huai-ren</i>), was born at Pitthem, a
village near Courtrai. He arrived at Macao in 1659 at the age of 35. Verbiest
was educated at the University of Louvain, where his course of study included
astronomy and mathematics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He
arrived in Beijing in 1660 and soon became Schall’s assistant.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In competition with Chinese
astronomers, he repeatedly demonstrated the superiority of western methods in
predicting the time of eclipses.</div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent">
The success of Schall and Verbiest in astronomy and
in rectifying the calendar led to invidious attacks on him from other
officials.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1664, in a report to
the Board of Rites, one Yang Guangxian made serious charges against him:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Adam Schall dodged and hid in the
court for the purpose of stealing secret information under the cover of
compiling the calendar.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
missionaries ganged up and were hatching a sinister plot.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>That is why they are building churches
in the capital and other important cities and promulgate their doctrines to
tempt people.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their activities
have violated our law and must be condemned” (Xi Zezong 1994: 187).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“The Westerner Adam Schall was a
posthumous follower of Jesus, who had been the ringleader of the treacherous
bandits of the Kingdom of Judea.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In the Ming dynasty he came to Peking secretly, and posed as a calendar-maker
in order to carry on the propagation of heresy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He engaged in spying out the secrets of our court. … During
the last twenty years [the Westerners] have won over one million disciples who
have spread throughout the Empire. … If we do not eradicate them soon, then we
ourselves rear a tiger that will lead us to future disaster” (Spence 1969:
21).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Schall, Verbiest, and their Jesuit
associates were imprisoned and placed on trial in 1665.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During one phase of the trial, Verbiest
was ordered to predict the exact time of a coming eclipse, and Chinese and
Muslim astronomers were ordered to do the same.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Verbiest, with help from Schall, was nearly precise in his
prediction, while the others were off by thirty minutes or more (Spence 1969).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although the official list of charges
was patently ridiculous, including the failure of Schall’s Bureau of Astronomy
to choose the correct day for a ceremony honoring the emperor’s youngest son,
Schall and twelve Chinese officials of the Bureau of Astronomy were sentenced
to death by dismemberment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was
also decreed that all Christian missionaries should be deported from China and
the Christian religion proscribed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, on the following day, a meeting of the regents to ratify this
sentence was interrupted by a strong earthquake, and shortly thereafter a comet
appeared in the sky.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Chinese,
perhaps correctly, interpreted this as a sign of divine displeasure, and
although five of the Chinese officials were executed, Schall and the other
missionaries were released.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Schall, already seriously ill, died in 1666.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His gravestone, still extant in 1900 but destroyed during
the Boxer Rebellion, was inscribed in both Chinese and Manchu (Väth 1933).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Schall’s accuser, Yang Guangxian,
was made head of the Bureau of Astronomy, but his incompetence soon became
clear, and in 1669 the emperor released Ferdinand Verbiest from house arrest
and placed him in charge (Xi Zezong 1994)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Verbiest was appointed a mandarin (scholar-official) in 1674.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Verbiest personally tutored the
emperor in western mathematics and astronomy for two years, and saw him make
great progress.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Verbiest and the
emperor became great friends, and he accompanied the emperor on two visits to
Tartary (Mongolia and Manchuria) in 1682 and 1683 (Orl<span style="color: black;">é</span>ans
1854).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Verbiest also taught the
emperor painting and music.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
During one of the expeditions to
Tartary, Verbiest gave the emperor an astronomy lesson:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“As the night was fair, and the Heavens
very clear, he willed me to name in the Chinese and European languages, all the
constellations that then appeared above the horizon, and he himself first named
all those he already knew” (Lach 1993: 1709).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The two had many conversations about Christianity, in which
the emperor often asked difficult questions, such as why God had not simply
forgiven the sins of the world, rather than having His Son die; or how the
flood of Noah could have been universally destructive, when the Chinese account
of the flood said that those on the plains drowned, while those who escaped to
the mountains survived (Lin Jinshui 1994).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Verbiest distinguished himself
above all as a mechanical engineer.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>By 1673 he had completed six bronze astronomical instruments, which were
installed in the Beijing observatory.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>These included a celestial globe locating the positions of 1,888
individual stars, which was accompanied by a printed star catalogue, two
armillary spheres (one ecliptic and one equatorial), a horizon circle, a
quadrant, and a sextant (previously unknown in China) (Xi Zezong 1994).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He also prepared a Chinese version of a
recent European map of the world, modified so as to place China in the middle
(Foss1988).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In 1674, when the Sanfan Rebellion
broke out, Verbiest was ordered to make cannons for the army.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He supervised the casting of nearly 500
of these, and held a public demonstration of their effectiveness.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When each gun was finished, it was
engraved with the name of a Christian saint, and Verbiest would sprinkle it
with holy water and pray for the success of the emperor’s army (Lin Jinshui
1994).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These cannons were later
used against the Russian fortress of Albazin on the Amur (1685-86).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Perhaps most remarkable was
Verbiest’s construction in 1665 of a steamboat and of a wooden “automotive
machine” powered by a steam turbine.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He drove this machine around in circles inside the large rooms of the
palace.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although these experiments
led to no widespread practical applications, they antedate the first European
devices of their kind by more than 100 years! (Scheel 1994).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Verbiest also acted as a diplomat
and interpreter in negotiations with the Russian embassy to Beijing in
1676.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Later generations of Chinese
historians have portrayed him as a spy or double agent because of the
information about China which he communicated to the Russian ambassador, N.G.M.
Spathary.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Apparently Verbiest’s
helpfulness to the Russians was motivated by his desire to secure an overland
route through Russia for future Jesuit missionaries (Heyndrickx 1994).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Leibniz also dreamed of the opening of
a land route to China, leading to more regular communication between learned men
in China and Europe.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After the
Sino-Russian treaty of Nerchinsk (1689), he had high hopes that this might
actually occur, and in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Novissima
Sinica</i> (1697) Leibniz urged Protestants to dispatch missionaries to China
(Wiener 1973).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In gratitude to Verbiest and at his
request, Kangxi made a proclamation in 1687 guaranteeing the free exercise of
the Christian religion throughout his empire, with priests being permitted to
travel freely under Verbiest’s seal.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Verbiest died the following year, but after some negotiation the Jesuits
were able to obtain a new edict of toleration (1692) (Lin Jinshui 1994).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
details of Verbiest’s work in China were made known to Europeans through the
publication of his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Astronomia europaea
sub imperatore tartaro-sinico Cam Hy apellato</i> (1687).</div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
“It was a star that long ago
led the Three Kings to adore the True God,” Verbiest wrote, “In the same way
the science of the stars will lead the rulers of the Orient, little by little,
to know and to adore their Lord” (Spence 1969: 33).</div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Beginning with Ricci, the
Jesuits had recognized the value of astronomy as a means of gaining the respect
of the Chinese.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rulings by the
Church in 1616 and 1633 condemned heliocentrism as erroneous, despite the fact
that the heliocentric view was becoming increasingly necessary to make sense of
astronomical phenomena.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, the
Jesuits were forbidden by the Church to teach heliocentrism in China; as a
compromise, they introduced the theory of Tycho Brahe, by which the sun is
described as revolving around the earth, while the remaining planets are in
orbit around the sun.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Copernican (heliocentric)
view was finally introduced to China by the Jesuit Michel Benoist (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Chiang Yu-jen</i>) in 1760, three years
after Copernicus’ <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De revolutionibus</i>
was removed from the Index (Mungello 1989).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Polish Jesuit Michael Boym
devoted himself to botany and materia medica.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His botanical expeditions to various parts of China and
Southeast Asia were reported in two important and influential works:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Flora
sinensis</i> (1656) and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Specimen
medicinae sinicae</i> (1682).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One
of his more interesting discoveries was that certain plants brought from the
Americas during the 16<sup>th</sup> century had acclimated themselves to
southern China and were flourishing there in his day (Lach 1993: 1681).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Jesuits were guilty of a
certain amount of deliberate misrepresentation, or propagandizing, in their
presentation of the Christian West to the Chinese.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In their descriptions of Europe, they maintained that an
ideal society had existed there since the beginning of the Christian era.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Giulio Aleni claimed that “All European
states, large or small, from their kings to the common people, adhere to
Catholicism, no heterodox doctrine being allowed in their midst” (Chen Minsun
1994: 131), and Ricci would have the Chinese believe that “there had been no
war and no strife among the thirty states of Europe for one thousand six
hundred years” (Chen Minsun 1994: 130).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Another example of this is the story Ricci told the Chinese in an effort
to discredit Buddhism:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“When we
examine Chinese history we find that Emperor Ming of the Han dynasty had heard
of these events [the ministry and miracles of Christ] and sent ambassadors on a
mission to the West to search for canonical writings.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Midway these ambassadors mistakenly took India to be their
goal, and returned to China with Buddhist scriptures which were then circulated
throughout the nation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From then
until now the people of your esteemed country have been deceived and misled”
[!] (Criveller 1997: 111).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Aleni’s
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tianzhu Jiangsheng Yanxing Jil<span style="color: black;">ü</span>e</i> (the Life of Our Lord Jesus Christ) was
published in 1635, with an accompanying volume of pictures published two years
later.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This work contains numerous
interesting adaptations of the Gospel for a Chinese audience.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, when Jesus went out to
pray, he was said to “practice the exercise of meditation” (Criveller 1997:
207).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the account of the six
brothers who married the same woman (Matthew 22), Aleni omits the fact that the
men were brothers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When Jesus is
sent to Herod, Aleni says that the soldiers dressed Him in “a long white
cloak,” white being the color of mourning in China (Criveller 1997: 208).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Luke 9, in the case of the man who
wanted to bury his father and the man who wanted to say goodbye to his parents,
Aleni has “let me first go to bury my dead relative” and “let me first go home
and finish my work” (Criveller 1997: 219).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This is a recognition of the importance of the concept
of filial piety, which required a three-year period of mourning for one’s father,
including retirement from all public activity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On the same theme, Aleni gives an account of Jesus’
childhood:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Afterwards for18
years, He lived in Nazareth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He
respected the Holy Mother and Joseph, establishing an example of filial piety
for humankind” (Criveller 1997: 220).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Aleni also includes some Catholic legends:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>a pagan temple in Rome is reported to have collapsed on the
occasion of Jesus’ birth, and Calvary is identified as the same place where
Abraham offered to sacrifice Isaac, as well as being the site of Adam’s tomb
(Criveller 1997).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<h1>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">The Chinese Rites Controversy</span></h1>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Chinese Rites controversy began
in 1643, when the Dominican Juan Bautista Morales brought formal charges
against the Jesuits, and concluded in 1742, when Benedict XIV issued the bull <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ex quo singulari</i>, prohibiting Christians
from observing the Confucian rites, imposing an oath of observance on all
missionaries in China, and forbidding all future discussion of the matter. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
At issue was whether Confucianism
was a pagan religion, a theistic moral philosophy compatible with Christianity,
or an atheistic philosophy incompatible with Christianity (Lach 1993).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first view was held by the
Dominicans and Franciscans; the Jesuits held the second view of Confucianism as
they supposed it to have existed in its original form, while admitting that the
Neo-Confucian beliefs of the Chinese intelligentsia in later times were
essentially atheistic.</div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: windowtext;">The
conflict between the Jesuits and the Mendicant Orders (Franciscans and
Dominicans) had its basis in the orders’ conflicting approaches to ethical
decisions, which had their origin in the casuistic approach to morality and the
manuals of moal theology which arose during the 17<sup>th</sup> century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Jesuits espoused probabilism, “the
doctrine that in matters of conscience where authorities differ, the opinion
favoring greater liberty may be followed, provided it is solidly probable”
(Criveller 1997: 18).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
Dominicans, on the other hand, espoused probabiliorism, which meant that in
making ethical decisions it was best to err on the side of caution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They accused the Jesuits of having
created “a set of rules for evading the rules, and rejected anything which was
founded on a probabilist basis, including the accommodationist approach of the
Jesuit mission in China (Criveller 1997).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: windowtext;">Another
important difference between the Jesuits and the Mendicant orders was that the
Jesuits believed the best approach to the conversion of China would be
conversion from the top.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, it
was always their goal to recommend themselves to the educated classes.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Adam Schall “endeavored to live like a
Confucian official.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He worked hard
at the Chinese language, studied the Confucian Classics, wore the long robes of
the Chinese scholar, and lived in considerable style” (Spence 1969: 14).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Franciscans and Dominicans, by
contrast, directed their efforts toward the poor, in the belief that they were
following the example of Christ in doing so.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: windowtext;">A
very important issue which arose in China was the question of the salvation or
damnation of the ancient Chinese, including Confucius.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Jesuits espoused the axiom of St.
Thomas Aquinas that “to one who does what lies in his power, God does not deny
grace” (Criveller 1997: 26).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
Franciscans, of course, did not hesitate to proclaim that Confucius and all
others who had died without knowledge of Christianity were in hell.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: windowtext;">Among
the specific charges made against the Jesuits were that they refused to say
that Confucius was in hell, that they hid the Crucifix from public view, and
that they refrained from mentioning the Passion and death of Christ.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They were also criticized for their
adoption of Chinese dress, permitting themselves to be carried about in
sedan-chairs, making loans for interest, and engaging in scientific work
(Criveller 1997).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Francesco Furtado, Vice Superior of
the Jesuits in China, “admitted that the Jesuits did not give wide public
display to the Crucifixion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They
wanted to avoid the danger of exposing the Christian doctrine of Crucifixion to
ridicule, or letting the Cross be assimilated to a Taoist charm” (Criveller
1997: 82).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>To this, Friar Domingo
Navarrete responded that “we do not say that they do not preach the Crucified
Christ, but that they reveal him very late” (Criveller 1997: 83).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This has to do with the Jesuit policy
of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">arcana</i>, by which various
doctrines, sacraments, and other practices which might potentially give offense
to the Chinese were deliberately concealed from the public and only gradually
revealed to catechumens.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Franciscans,
by contrast, believed that all the doctrines of Christianity should be preached
openly, without dissembling.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One
friar customarily held up the crucifix during the preaching of the Gospel.</div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent">
Origen (185-254) had taught that “each nation should
call God by the name designated to its highest and most esteemed being”
(Collani 1994: 461).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>What this
designation should be in Chinese was hotly debated among the Jesuits, beginning
at a conference at Macao in 1621 (Attwater 1963).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Perhaps the most tragic aspect of the Chinese Rites
Controversy was that the needless dispute over names for God ultimately
resulted in the loss of imperial favor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent">
The emperor Kangxi had presented the Jesuits with
tablets inscribed with the Chinese characters <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jing tian</i> (“worship heaven”), and these were displayed in their
church in Beijing.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However,
despite the testimony of numerous Chinese scholars that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jing tian</i> and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jing tianzhu</i>
(“worship the Lord of heaven”) were synonymous terms, Charles Maigrot, the
Vicar Apostolicus of Fujian, believed that the emperor’s phrase referred to the
material heavens and hence was an exhortation to idolatry.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Maigrot proceeded to remove the
tablets, which had amounted to an edict of imperial toleration of Christianity,
from their place in the church, causing “a great tumult among the Christians”
(Collani 1994: 468).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent">
On August 2, 1706, the Emperor met personally with
Maigrot, and asked him, “What are your objections to the characters <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jing tian</i>?”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Maigrot replied, “<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tian</i>
does not mean the Lord of Heaven.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“I am very surprised at you,” said the emperor, “Did I not already state
that <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tian</i> is a much better expression
for the Lord of Heaven than <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">tianzhu</i>?”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He went on to argue that “the true
meaning of Chinese words does not always coincide with their literal meaning”
(Collani 1994: 467).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent">
At one point, the emperor, disgusted by Maigrot's
poor spoken Chinese, asked him to interpret four Chinese characters written on
a scroll hanging behind the throne.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Maigrot was able to read only one of them; moreover, he was unable to recognize
Matteo Ricci's Chinese name in written form, and admitted that he was
unfamiliar with Ricci's <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">T'ien-chu shih-i </i>(which
all educated Chinese had read).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The emperor warned Maigrot against any interference with the Chinese
rites and dismissed him from court, expressing his astonishment "that such
dunces should claim to decide the meaning of texts and ceremonies of several
thousand years' antiquity" (Cronin 1955: 282).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent">
The emperor subsequently interviewed one of
Maigrot’s teachers of Chinese, the Christian Jiang Weibiao (Xaverius), who
stated, “I have been with Maigrot for two years and have explained Chinese
books to him.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>But he stubbornly
stuck to a different European interpretation” (Collani 1994: 468).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent">
This stubbornness had its final consequence on March
19, 1715, when the papal bull <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ex illa die</i>
forbade the practice of the Confucian rites by Christians, and specifically
forbade the use of the phrase <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">jing tian</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This effectively ended the successful
Jesuit mission in China (Collani 1994).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Tianzhu</i>, by the way, is still
the designation for God used by Chinese Catholics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent">
It should be noted that not all Chinese shared the
emperor’s views on the interchangeability of these terms.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As one Chinese official wrote in 1620,
[The missionaries] “take the Chinese ‘Heaven’ and misleadingly compare it with
their ‘Lord of Heaven,’ who mysteriously dwelt in this world as an immortal and
has published a sacred book, so wild is their imagining” (Criveller<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1997: 376).</div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: windowtext;">One
consequence of the Church’s position on these matters was that the Jesuits were
no longer permitted to accept the title of mandarin (scholar-official), as
Schall, Verbiest, and several others had done.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By forbidding this, the Church dealt a very serious blow to
the Jesuit strategy to convert the Chinese educated classes.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Five French Jesuits, Joachim
Bouvet, Jean de Fontaney, Jean-Francois Gerbillon, Guy Tachard, and Claude de
Visdelou, arrived in Beijing just ten days after Verbiest’s death (1688). Since
they were trained in astronomy, they were able to continue his work (Witek
1994:18).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bouvet later
corresponded with Leibniz, providing him with much useful first-hand
information.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
1709, in response to the emperor’s request to provide and accurate and detailed
atlas of the Chinese empire, the Jesuits changed their emphasis from astronomy
to cartography.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They began by
surveying Manchuria, and the emperor was so impressed with the results that he
employed three separate groups of Jesuit surveyors on the project.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Every province of China had been mapped
by the end of 1715, and the completed atlas was presented to the emperor in
1718.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There were about 120 Jesuits
working in China at that time, and an estimated 300,000 Chinese Catholics (Foss
1988).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Jesuits continued to hold the
position of director of the Bureau of Astronomy until the suppression of the
order in 1773 (Pfister).</div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<br /></div>
<h1>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">The Influence of China on European Thought</span></h1>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Chinese Rites controversy was
an important factor in contributing to European consciousness of China, having
“given rise in the minds of everyone to a desire to know China” (Etienne de
Silhouette, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Idée générale du gouvernement
… des Chinois</i>, 1729, quoted in Wiener 1973: 358).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The controversy, which lasted for a century, quickly spread
from China to Europe, where the Chinese Rites were hotly debated in religious
circles between the supporters of the Jesuits and the supporters of the
Dominicans and Franciscans.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
controversy soon spread to the Sorbonne, and many European intellectuals became
involved in it. Nicolas Malebranche, in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Entretien
d'un philosophe chrétien et d'un philosophe chinois, sur l'existence et la
nature de Dieu </i>(1708), written with the support of Jesuits in China, argued
that the Confucianism of the Chinese learned class amounted to atheism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Leibniz also wrote in support of
the Jesuit cause:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“… even if
[Confucianism] is regarded equivocally, it is advisable to give it the most
favorable meaning—as the Apostle Paul is said to have done in taking the altar
erected to an unknown god as having been instituted by the Athenians for rites
which they ought to have celebrated rather than for those which they usually
practiced” (Leibniz 1994: 63).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
all, Leibniz wrote four treatises on China—the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Novissima Sinica</i>, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De Cultu
Confucii civili</i> (1700/01), <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Remarks on
Chinese Rites and Religion</i> (1708), and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Discourse
on the Natural Theology of the Chinese</i> (1716).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In all of these works, Leibniz took the side of the Jesuits
in the Chinese Rites controversy.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
occasional arrival of Jesuits from China, sometimes even with visiting Chinese
converts, also aroused a great deal of interest.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>During his visit to Europe from 1682-92, the Jesuit Philippe
Couplet was received by Pope Alexander VII in Rome and Louis XIV at Versailles.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“With his Chinese companion, clothing,
and accouterments, Couplet appears to have launched a rage for <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chinoiserie</i> in France” (Mungello 1988:
262).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Couplet also supervised the
publication in Paris of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Confucius Sinarum
philosophus</i> (1687), a Latin translation of the Confucian classics which was
to have a significant influence on European thought.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Over one-hundred Jesuits had contributed to the translation
(Mungello 1988).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The materials on China published by
the Jesuits had profound and far-reaching implications.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ricci and others praised the Chinese
system of government by scholar-officials as “government by philosophers,” and
this parallel to Plato’s Republic did much to idealize China in the eyes of
European thinkers, especially during the Enlightenment (Mungello 1989).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Jesuit Athanasias Kircher, in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">China illustrata</i> (1667), portrayed China
as a sort of utopia—a happy land characterized by industry and good social
order, under the rule of a “philosopher king.”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
One of the earliest European
philosophers to propagate the Jesuit view of the Chinese was Christian Wolff,
who delivered an important lecture at Marburg in 1730, praising China as “the
outstanding working example of an enlightened government” (Wiener 1973:
361).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This idea became a
commonplace among 18<sup>th</sup> century writers and was repeated in various
forms by Rousseau, Goldsmith (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Chinese
Letters</i>, 1760-62), the Marquis d’Argens (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Lettres chinoises</i>, 1755), and many others.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Montesquieu, however, in his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">L’esprit des lois</i> (1748) was more
realistic in that he balanced the accounts of the Jesuits with those of
European merchants, who unanimously condemned the Chinese for their “treachery,
deceit, and dishonesty” (Wiener 1973: 361).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The eighteenth century reading
public “wanted a culture idol and China presented itself as a likely candidate”
(Mungello 1989: 125n).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For this
reason, J-B Du Halde, in his editions of the massively influential Jesuit <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Lettres édifiantes et curieuses</i> (34
volumes, 1702-1776) purposely omitted any material which appeared unsympathetic
to the Chinese.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Lettres</i> were “particularly famous and
highly appreciated reading-matter in the cultural salons of XVIII century
France” (Criveller 1997:12).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
With the appearance in 18<sup>th</sup>
century Europe of Chinese porcelain and other examples of Chinese visual arts, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chinoiserie</i> (pseudo-Chinese art,
fashion, and décor) became all the rage.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The pastel colors and dreamy sensuality of Chinese porcelain offered
relief from the monumentalism and geometric precision of baroque and
neoclassical design.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This was
expressed in wallpaper with Chinese designs, lacquer paneling, Chinese
cabinets, screens, fans, and tapestries.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Imitation Chinese pagodas were erected on landed estates and in public
gardens, and sedan chairs became the height of fashion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>China was popularly seen as “the home
of an imaginary, happy people who came to life in the paintings on
porcelain”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Wiener 1973: 354). It
is ironic that many of the motifs which appeared in wares imported from China
were not authentically Chinese, but were mass-produced for the European
market.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, to appeal to
European tastes, Europeans’ preconceptions about China were mirrored back to
them!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
China became a popular subject of
European writers. Voltaire, for example, wrote at least three works of this
kind.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Voltaire’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Entretiens chinoises</i> (1768) present an imaginary
dialogue between a Jesuit and a Chinese mandarin who has visited Europe, on the
subject of Natural Theology.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His
play <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">L’Orphelin de la Chine</i> (1755)
used as its basis an authentic Chinese drama which had been published by Du
Halde.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">De la gloire, ou entretien avec un Chinois</i> (1738) records the
imaginary conversation between a Chinese merchant and other patrons in a
bookshop in Holland.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It soon
appears that the visitor is completely unacquainted with the most important
assumptions of European civilization, while the Europeans demonstrate their
complete ignorance of China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At
the end, Voltaire exclaims, “Since Caesar and Jupiter are names unknown to the
finest, most ancient, most extensive, most populous, and most civilized kingdom
in the universe, it becomes ye well, O ye rulers of petty states!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ye pulpit orators of a narrow parish,
or a little town!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ye doctors of
Salamanca, or of Bourges!<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ye
trifling authors, and ye heavy commentators!—it becomes you well, indeed, to
aspire to fame and immortality” (Voltaire 1940: 274).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In his attacks on the Catholic
church, Voltaire “cleverly used the information about China provided by the
Catholics … If the Chinese really were so moral, intelligent, ethical, and well
governed and if this was largely attributable to the influence of Confucius, it
followed that since Confucius had not been a Christian it was obviously
possible for a country to get along admirably without the presence of Catholic
clerical power” (Spence 1999: ¶3).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Voltaire’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Essai sur les Moeurs et
l’esprit des nations</i> began with a long section on China, which he portrayed
as an ideal political system where government had fostered and protected the
development of civilization.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
that work, Voltaire stated that “the great misunderstanding over Chinese rites
sprang from our judging their practices in light of ours:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>we carry the prejudices that spring
from our contentious nature to the ends of the world” (Spence 1999: ¶4).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
As an expression of the very high
esteem in which Confucius was held, Leibniz’ statement in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Novissima Sinica</i> (1697) is
remarkable:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“We need missionaries
from the Chinese who might teach us the use and practice of natural religion,
just as we have sent them teachers of revealed theology” (Wiener 1973: 361).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Another important issue which arose
was the chronology of ancient history.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The latest possible date accepted by Chinese scholars for the foundation
of China was 2357 B.C. (others placed it as far back as 2952 B.C.).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Vulgate dating of the Flood to 2349
B.C. would thus have been unacceptable to the Chinese, amounting to a flat
contradiction of Chinese historical traditions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For this reason, the Jesuits received permission in 1637 to
teach the Septuagint chronology in China, which placed the Flood in 2957 B.C.
(Mungello 1989).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The problem of reconciling Biblical
and Chinese chronology was of great significance from the European side as
well.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>If the Chinese records (as
transmitted to European readers in Martino Martini’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sinicae Historiae decas prima</i>, 1658) were correct, then continued
acceptance of the Vulgate chronology became problematical.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Vulgate flood date of 2349 B.C.
corresponded very closely with the Chinese account of a great flood during the
reign of the emperor Yao (2357-2257 B.C.); yet this would imply that the
destruction of mankind by the Flood was not universal and that the Chinese, at
least, were not descendants of Noah (Mungello 1989).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It thus became a matter of necessity to adopt the Septuagint
chronology in Europe as well. The third edition of Bossuet’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Discours sur l’histoire universelle</i> was
revised to incorporate the Septuagint chronology (in place of the Hebrew Old
Testament chronology), which entailed less conflict with the received history
of ancient China (Mungello 1989).</div>
<div class="MsoBodyTextIndent">
Even more revolutionary was the suggestion of Isaac
Vossius that since China’s history clearly antedated the Flood, since the
history of China was continuous, and since no universal deluge is mentioned in
the Chinese annals, the Flood was therefore not universal but “simply an event
in the history of the Jews”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus
Vossius, “on the basis of his faith in the Chinese annals, … reduced the Bible
to a book of local history” (Wiener 1973: 359)—a significant challenge to the
doctrine of the inerrancy of the scriptures.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
A subject to which information from
China proved very important was the search by European scholars for a
“universal language”.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some
scholars assumed that the archetype of all languages which had existed before
the confusion of human speech at Babel must still exist, and the great
antiquity of the Chinese language led some to investigate the possibility that
Chinese was the original form of human speech, unchanged since the time of
Noah.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This argument was proposed
by John Webb in <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">An historical essay
endeavoring a probability that the language of the empire of China is the
primitive language</i> (1669).<span style="font-family: Arial;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Kircher believed that the Chinese
writing system was originally pictographic, and sought to relate it to the
Egyptian hieroglyphic writing (still undeciphered at that time).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kircher concluded that the Chinese had
migrated from Egypt, and that their writing system was invented 300 years after
the Flood by Fu His, whom he identified as a counselor of the biblical Nimrod,
thus making the Chinese of Hamitic descent (Mungello 1989).<span style="font-family: Arial;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
According to Alvaro Semedo (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Imperio de la China</i>, 1642), Chinese was
one of the 71 languages created at Babel.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He emphasized the monosyllabic nature of the Chinese language and its
lack of inflectional features, and claimed (quite accurately, it now appears)
that the written form of the language dates to around 2000 B.C.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Semedo explained how the 214 radicals
were used to form more complex characters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He demonstrated how the Chinese character meaning “precious
stone” (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">yü</i>) was related to simpler characters
meaning “king” and “earth,” and how <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">yü</i>
in turn formed part of more complex characters designating various types of
precious stones. He correctly stated that the total number of Chinese
characters exceeded 60,000 (Mungello 1989).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Others, including Descartes,
Leibniz, and Bishop John Wilkins, approached the problem from a different
direction.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They sought to create a
purely logical language of numbers or symbols, by which the meaning of any
expression could be derived with mathematical precision.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Numerous schemes and proposals of this
type appeared between 1650 and 1725.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Newly available information about
the Chinese language and writing system was examined by Leibniz and others with
these ideas in mind.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Leibniz
“hoped to use elements from Chinese in developing a philosophical language that
would replace Latin and help to make direct communication possible among the
intellectuals of the world” (Wiener 1973: 358).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“If we had some exact language (like the one called Adamitic
by some) or at least a kind of truly philosophic writing, in which the ideas
were reduced to a kind of alphabet of human thought, then all that follows
rationally from what is given could be found by a kind of calculus, just as
arithmetical or geometrical problems are solved” (Mungello 1989: 192).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: windowtext;">The
representational system Leibniz had in mind is known as a Universal
Characteristic, its elements as Real Characters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He believed that there had been one or more primitive
languages which had “perfectly captured the relationship between the thought
and the thing,” but that “such languages had long since deteriorated” (Mungello
1989: 194). However, Jacob Gohl (Jacobus Golius), a Dutch scholar, believed
that Chinese had been “invented all at once,” in other words, that it had been
devised as a logical system.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: windowtext;">The
Jesuit Le Comte constructed a table of the 326 possible monosyllables which
could occur in Mandarin; multiplying these by five tones, he concluded that
only 1,665 spoken words were possible (Lach 1993).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: windowtext;">Another
argument for the universal logical and nature of the Chinese writing system was
the fact that Chinese writing was used and understood in Japan, Korea, Taiwan,
Vietnam, and Thailand, although Chinese was not spoken in those countries.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Two German scholars at Berlin,
Andreas Müller (1630?-1694) and Christian Mentzel (1622-1701), each claimed to
have developed a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Clavis Sinica</i>—an
algorithm by which the meaning of Chinese writing could be readily
derived.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“This key was essentially
a logical rather than a linguistic device and it emphasized
classification”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(Mungello 1989:
36).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Leibniz became extremely interested
in this project, and wrote to Müller, addressing fourteen questions to him,
such as “after practicing this Key, can I understand everything written in
Chinese script, no matter what the subject may be?” and “if I had this Key,
could I write something in Chinese script, and would it be comprehensible by a
literate Chinese?” (Mungello 1989: 199).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, Müller refused to reveal anything about his secret unless he
received a substantial payment.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Unable to profit from his “discovery,” Müller burned his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Clavis Sinica</i> shortly before his death.
Müller did produce a typographia, still extant at the Deutsche
Staatsbibliothek, comprising 3,284 small wooden printing blocks, each engraved
with a Chinese character (Mungello 1989)</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Mentzel’s <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Clavis Sinica, ad Chinensium Scripturam et Pronunciationem Mandarinicam</i>
was supposed to have contained 124 “tables of writing” which disclosed the
evolving form of complex Chinese characters from simpler ones.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Mentzel made reference to the 214
radicals, divided into 17 categories according to the number of strokes their
writing required.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“It is clear
from the manner in which Mentzel treated the 17 categories that he regarded
them as more than an artificial arrangement of the characters for the purpose
of lexical efficiency” (Mungello 1989: 202).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Mentzel’s claim that his Key could
explain the Mandarin pronunciation and meaning of the characters is more
mysterious; unfortunately his <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Clavis
Sinica</i> was never published, and no copy of it is known to exist.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When Leibniz wrote to him in 1698,
Mentzel was too ill to reply, and died not long after.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It appears that Mentzel failed to
publish his work because he was unaware of the Chinese typographia which Müller
had already made and presented to the Elector’s library.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A closely related subject, which greatly
fascinated Leibniz, was the 64 hexagrams of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">I ching</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Jesuit
missionary Joachim Bouvet (1656-1730) served as tutor of the Kang Xi emperor’s
children.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was in China from
1688-97, and met Leibniz during a visit to Europe.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They continued to correspond after Bouvet’s return to China
in 1698.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bouvet believed
that Fu Hsi, the legendary writer of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">I
ching</i>, was none other than the legendary Hermes Trismegistus, and that by
producing the eight basic trigrams of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">I
ching</i>, Fu Hsi had provided “a notation for experiment and observation in
all of the sciences” (Leibniz 1994: 16).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Bouvet also claimed that the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">I
ching</i> contained prophetic anticipations of the Christian mysteries
(Mungello).</div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: windowtext;">Leibniz
saw a remarkable correspondence between the hexagrams of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">I ching</i> and his own discovery of binary
arithmetic.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In a letter to Bouvet
(1703), Leibniz linked the eight basic trigrams to the numbers 0 to 7, so that
(in binary notation), the 8<sup>th</sup> would be represented as 111, “the most
perfect and the Sabbath, for in it everything has been made and fulfilled”
(Leibniz 1994: 17). “I think the substance of the ancient theology of the
Chinese is intact and, purged of additional errors, can be harnessed to the
great truths of the Christian religion.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Fohi, the most ancient prince and philosopher of the Chinese, had
understood the origin of things from unity and nothing, i.e., his mysterious
figures reveal something of an analogy to Creation, containing the binary
arithmetic (and yet hinting at greater things) that I rediscovered after so
many thousands of years, where all numbers are written by only two notations, 0
and 1” (Leibniz 1994: 73).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: windowtext;">If
the logical, binary system of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">I ching</i>
was the actual basis of the Chinese writing system, then that system might
actually prove to be the Universal Characteristic which Leibniz sought.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“If we Europeans were well enough
informed concerning Chinese Literature, then, with the aid of logic, critical
thinking, mathematics and our manner of expressing thought—more exacting than
theirs—we could uncover in the Chinese writings of the remotest antiquity many
things unknown to modern Chinese and even to other commentators thought to be
classical.… Actually, the 64 figures [in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">I ching</i>] represent a Binary Arithmetic which apparently this great
legislator possessed, and which I have rediscovered some thousands of years
later. … This Arithmetic furnishes the simplest way of making changes, since
there are only two components” (Leibniz 1994: 133).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Leibniz believed that the wholesale conversion of the
Chinese would result once it was explained to them that later generations had
simply lost the true meaning of the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">I
ching</i> (Leibniz 1994).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: windowtext;">Much
of this speculation sounds like nonsense to us today; of course, in the 17<sup>th</sup>
century when the Chinese language and writing system were an entirely novel
discovery, all of these suggestions were exciting possibilities.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some of them would have to be discarded
in the light of subsequent investigation, while others might still yield
something if pursued further.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Leibniz was one of the most creative minds of his day, and even today
very little that he said can be readily discounted.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="color: windowtext;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Jesuit accounts of China had some impact on Protestant Christian thought, as
may be seen in several quotations from the writings of Jonathan Edwards:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: green;">“</span><span style="color: black;">We see, that those who live at the greatest distance from
revelation, are far the most brutish. The Heathens in America, and in
some of the utmost parts of Asia and Africa, are far more barbarous than those
who formerly lived in Rome, Greece, Egypt, Syria, and Chaldea.
Their traditions are more worn out, and they are more distant from places
enlightened with revelation. The Chinese, descended probably from the
subjects of Noah, that holy man, have held more by tradition from him, than
other nations, and so have been a more civilized people” (Edwards 1817: ¶17).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
“The [Native] Americans, the
Africans, the Tartars, and the ingenious Chinese, have had time enough, one
would think, to find out the true and right idea of God; and yet, after above
five thousand years' improvements, and the full exercise of reason, they have,
at this day, got no farther in their progress towards the true religion, than
to the worship of stocks and stones and devils. How many thousand years
must be allowed to these nations, to reason themselves into the true
religion? What the light of nature and reason could do to investigate the
knowledge of God, is best seen by what they have already done. (Edwards
1817: ¶35)</div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Such
statements stand in sharp contrast to the Enlightenment’s idealization of
Confucius and the Chinese “natural theology.”</div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<span style="color: windowtext;">It
was Hegel who gave currency to the idea that Chinese civilization was static
and unprogressive.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, in marked
contrast to what earlier philosophers had written, he placed China at the
bottom of his linear scheme of historical development, a stagnant antithesis to
the “self-realization” which characterized Europe (Wiener 1973: 366).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As Nicolas Boulanger had written,
somewhat prophetically, in 1763: “All the remains of her ancient institutions,
which China now possesses, will necessarily be lost; they will disappear in the
future revolutions; as what she hath already lost of them vanished in former
ones; and finally, as she acquires nothing new, she will always be on the
losing side” (Spence 1999: ¶6).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
<div class="MsoBodyText">
<br /></div>
<h1>
<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: large;">The Influence of Europe on Chinese Thought</span></h1>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
While most learned Chinese remained
skeptical of the Jesuits’ accounts of the West, there were a few who recognized
the significance of this cultural interchange.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Xu Erjue, in a preface written for one of Verbiest’s works
(1676) wrote that “The Chinese remain in a corner, just like the frogs living
in the bottom of a well, without knowing the immensity of the great rivers. …
They know only the domain of China, the capital, and the provinces, but nothing
special outside China” (Lin Tongyang 1994: 159).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
During the early stages of contact
with the Jesuits, many educated Chinese responded with great interest to the
Jesuit program of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">gewu</i> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">qiongli</i> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">zhitian</i> (“investigation of things, fathoming principles, knowing
God”).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In terms of the investigation of
things, in the judgment of the Chinese scholar Liang Qichao (1872-1927), the
Jesuit introduction of European astronomy and mathematics entailed a Chinese
accommodation of foreign ideas comparable in magnitude and importance to the
introduction of Buddhism to China (Xi Zezong 1994).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The numerous technical innovations of Verbiest and others
had a great impact on Chinese thought. However, by the end of the 17<sup>th</sup>
century, “Chinese scholars who continued to be interested in the westerners’
investigation of things were no longer interested in their way of fathoming
principles” (Standaert 1994: 419).</div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Some of the Chinese scholars
reacted to Christian ideas with great hostility, as expressed by the official
Xu Ruke in 1620:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“They do not give
due reverence to Shang-di but say that he was born of a barbarian woman and
according to a picture of him they have brought, he really looked like a doll.
… They take our incomparable China and oppose it to their Great Western Land,
as if there were two countries in the world” (Criveller 1997: 376).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Clearly it was seen by the Chinese as
insulting to be asked to adopt a foreign religion. </div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Chinese objections to the deity
of Christ demonstrate the great gulf which separated eastern and western
thinking:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“He is just a barbarian
of the Western seas.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They also say
that he died nailed, by evil administrators, to a structure in the form of a
character that denotes ‘ten.’<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>So
he is just a barbarian convict condemned to death.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>How could an executed barbarian convict be called the Lord
of Heaven?” (Criveller 1997: 376).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>“Was the Heaven empty during the thirty-three years of Incarnation?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Or are there two Gods?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Why did he come personally to save
humankind, why did he not create a good person to do this for Him, since the history
of China has plenty of good sages adapted for the purpose?” (Criveller 1997:
387).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>“Although he is said to have
redeemed all crimes, the fact that there are still people who are cast into
hell proves that the Redemption was incomplete” [!] (Criveller 1997: 392).</div>
<div class="MsoBodyText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Even those who were attracted to
Christianity were dismayed by the apparent exclusion of China from the plan of
salvation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The discovery in 1625
of the Nestorian Monument was of great help to the Jesuits in answering these
questions, since it demonstrated the ancient presence of Christianity in China
(Criveller 1997).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Back in Europe,
however, many (including Voltaire) believed that the Nestorian Monument was a
Jesuit fabrication intended to reinforce their position of power and influence
in China (Mungello 1989).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
fact remains that after the first wave of influential converts to Christianity
under Ricci’s influence, there was a gradual turning away and loss of interest
in the Christian message by the emperor and the ruling class.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It seems likely that Rome’s
inflexibility and cultural insensitivity helped bring this about.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the same time, it may be that Matteo
Ricci was unique and irreplaceable—that none of the later Jesuits, however
talented, could have hoped to match his success in understanding and being
understood by the Chinese.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>WORKS
CITED</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Attwater, Rachel</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1963<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Adam
Schall:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A Jesuit at the Court of
China (1592-1666).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Adapted from<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>the
French of Joseph Duhr, S.J.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>London:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Geoffrey Chapman.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Camps, OFM, Arnulf and Pat McCloskey, OFM</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1995<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Friars Minor in China (1294-1955), especially the years 1925-55,<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>based
on the research of Friars Bernward Willeke and Domenico<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Gandolfi,
OFM.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rome:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>General Secretariat for Missionary<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Evangelization.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Chan, Albert </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1988<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Late
Ming Society and the Jesuit Missionaries. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In</i> East Meets West: The<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Jesuits
in China, 1582-1773, ed. Charles E. Ronan S.J. and Bonnie B. C. Oh.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Chicago:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Loyola University Press.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Chen Minsun</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1994<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Ferdinand
Verbiest and the Geographical Works by Jesuits in Chinese<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>1584-1674.
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In</i> Ferdinand Verbiest
(1623-1688):<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jesuit Missionary,<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Scientist,
Engineer and Diplomat, ed. John W. Witek S.J.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nettetal: Steyler
Verlag.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Collani, Claudia von</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1994<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Jing tian</i>—The Kangxi Emperoor’s Gift to
Ferdinand Verbiest in the Rites<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Controversy.
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In</i> Ferdinand Verbiest
(1623-1688):<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jesuit Missionary,<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Scientist,
Engineer and Diplomat, ed. John W. Witek S.J.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nettetal: Steyler
Verlag.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Criveller, Gianni</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1997<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Preaching
Christ in Late Ming China:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
Jesuits’ Presentation of Christ<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>from
Matteo Ricci to Giulio Aleni.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Ricci Institute Vari<span style="color: black;">é</span>t<span style="color: black;">é</span>s<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Sinologiques—New
Series 86.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Taipei:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ricci Institute for Chinese<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Studies.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Cronin, Vincent</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1955<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Wise Man from the West.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>New
York:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Dunne S.J., George H.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1962<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Generation
of Giants:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Story of the
Jesuits in China in the Last<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Decades
of the Ming Dynasty.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Notre Dame,
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<div class="MsoNormal">
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<div class="MsoNormal">
Edwards, Jonathan</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 15.0pt;">
1817<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Miscellaneous Observations on
Important Theological Subjects, Original and
Collected.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Retrieved 18 December
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Foss, Theodore N.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1988<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A
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</span>Jesuit Cartography.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In</i> East Meets<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>West:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Jesuits in China, 1582-1773, ed.
Charles E. Ronan S.J. and<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Bonnie
B. C. Oh.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Chicago:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Loyola University Press. </div>
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Heyndrickx C.I.C.M., Jeroom</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1994<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Ferdinand
Verbiest in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Cihai </i>Dictionary. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In</i> Ferdinand<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Verbiest
(1623-1688):<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jesuit Missionary,
Scientist, Engineer<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>and
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</span>Nettetal:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Steyler Verlag.</div>
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Lach, Donald F. and Edwin J. Van Kley</div>
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</span>1993<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Asia
in the Making of Europe (volume III: A Century of Advance; book 4:<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>East
Asia).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Chicago:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The University of Chicago Press.</div>
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Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1994<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Writings
on China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Translated and edited by
Daniel J. Cook and Henry<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Rosemont,
Jr.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Chicago:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Open Court Publishing Co.</div>
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Lin Jinshui</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 15.0pt;">
1994<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The Influence of Ferdinand
Verbiest on the Policy of the Kangxi Emperor<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Towards
Christianity. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In</i> Ferdinand Verbiest
(1623-1688):<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jesuit<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Missionary,
Scientist, Engineer and Diplomat, ed. John W. Witek S.J.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Nettetal:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Steyler Verlag.</div>
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Lin Tongyang</div>
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</span>1994<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Ferdinand
Verbiest’s Contribution to Chinese Geography and<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Cartography.
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In</i> Ferdinand Verbiest
(1623-1688):<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jesuit Missionary,<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Scientist,
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Mungello, David E.</div>
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</span>1988<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Seventeenth Century Jesuit Translation Project. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In</i> East Meets West:<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Jesuits in China, 1582-1773, ed. Charles E. Ronan S.J. and Bonnie B.C.
Oh.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Chicago:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Loyola University Press.</div>
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<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: -57.0pt;">
1989<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Curious
Land:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jesuit Accommodation and the
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</span>University of Hawaii Press.</div>
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Neill, Stephen</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1990<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A
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</span>Harmondsworth:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Penguin.</div>
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Orl<span style="color: black;">é</span>ans S.J., Pierre Joseph
d’</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 15.0pt;">
1854<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>History of the Two Tartar
Conquerors of China, including the Two<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Journeys
into Tartary of Father Ferdinand Verbiest, in the Suite of the<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Emperor
Kang-Hi; to which is added Father Pereira’s Journey into Tartary<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>in the
Suite of the Same Emperor, from the Dutch of Nicolaas Witsen.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Translated
and Edited by the Earl of Ellesmere.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>New York:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Burt<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Franklin,
Publisher.<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></div>
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Pfister, Louis</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1932<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Notices
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Chinese Materials Center,<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Inc.,
San Francisco, 1976.</div>
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Ronan S.J., Charles E. and Bonnie B. C. Oh, eds.</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1988<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>East
Meets West:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Jesuits in China,
1582-1773, ed. Charles E. Ronan<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>S.J.
and Bonnie B. C. Oh.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Chicago:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Loyola University Press.</div>
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Scheel, J. Ditlev</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1994<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Beijing
Precursor. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In</i> Ferdinand Verbiest
(1623-1688):<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jesuit Missionary,<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Scientist,
Engineer and Diplomat, ed. John W. Witek S.J.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nettetal: Steyler
Verlag.</div>
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Sebes S.J., Joseph</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 15.0pt;">
1988<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The Precursors of Ricci.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In</i>
East Meets West:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Jesuits in
China, 1582-1773,
ed. Charles E. Ronan S.J. and Bonnie B. C. Oh.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Chicago:<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Loyola
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1969<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>To
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China, 1620-1960.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Boston: <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Little,
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Spence, Jonathan D.</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1984<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
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York:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Viking Penguin Inc.</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Spence, Jonathan D.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1999<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
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Norton.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in;">
Retrieved December 18, 2005 from
http://www.heritageeast.com/history/<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>
qingtxt.htm</div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Standaert S.J., Nicolas</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1994<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Investigation of Things and Fathoming of Principles (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">gewu qiongli</i>) in<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>the
Seventeenth-Century Contact between Jesuits and Chinese Scholars. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In</i><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Ferdinand
Verbiest (1623-1688):<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jesuit
Missionary, Scientist, Engineer<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>and
Diplomat, ed. John W. Witek S.J.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Nettetal:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Steyler Verlag.</div>
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Väth S.J., Alfons</div>
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<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1933<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Johann
Adam Schall von Bell S.J.:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Missionar in China, Kaiserlicher<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Astronom
und Ratgeber am Hofe von Peking.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Köln:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Verlag J. P. Bachem<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>G.
M. B. H.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Voltaire</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1940<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Best Known Works of Voltaire.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>New
York:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Book League.</div>
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<div class="MsoBodyText">
Wiener, Philip P., ed.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: -57.0pt;">
<span style="color: black;">1973 <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
Dictionary of the History of Ideas: Studies of Selected Pivotal Ideas. New
York: Charles Scribner's Sons.</span> Retrieved December 19, 2005 from
http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-48<span style="color: black;"><o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Witek S.J., John W., ed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
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</span>1994<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Ferdinand
Verbiest (1623-1688):<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jesuit
Missionary, Scientist, Engineer<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>and
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<br /></div>
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Xi Zezong</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1994<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Ferdinand
Verbiest’s Contributions to Chinese Science.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">In</i> Ferdinand<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Verbiest
(1623-1688):<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jesuit Missionary,
Scientist, Engineer<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>and
Diplomat, ed. John W. Witek S.J.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Nettetal:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Steyler Verlag.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Young, John D. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: 1.0in; text-indent: -57.0pt;">
1980<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>East-West
Synthesis:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Matteo Ricci and
Confucianism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hong Kong: Centre of
Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong.</div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<!--EndFragment-->Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-89778527911036580512012-01-27T18:00:00.000-08:002012-01-27T18:00:37.336-08:00The Chinese Rites Controversy (2003)<!--StartFragment-->
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">The Chinese Rites
Controversy<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As
a means of connecting the ideas we discussed in our workshop to the E.S.L.
teaching issues which I have described, Dr. Woodbridge has encouraged me to
examine the Chinese Rites Controversy, which occupied the attention of the
Catholic church from 1643 to 1742.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>I will begin by outlining the history of that controversy<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn1" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[1]</span></span></a>,
after which I will present the most important insights which I obtained from
reading about it.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>A.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Background of the Chinese Rites
Controversy<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Traditionally,
three religious "ways" have been practiced in China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Of these, Confucianism is more of a
theory of social relationships and duties than a religious system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Confucian "classics" were
compiled by Kung-Fu-tze (Confucius, d. 479 b.c.), and were themselves for the
most part a codification of older texts, some of great antiquity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Confucianism became the cult of the
state and ruling class, and the Confucian teachings about mourning for the dead
and honoring one's ancestors were observed at all levels of society.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Confucian concept of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hsiao</i> (filial piety) was regarded as the
basis of all morality.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Confucian
norms of social conduct (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">li</i>)
attempted to regulate every aspect of human behavior.
"Neo-Confucianism," which arose in the 11<sup>th</sup> century, was an
attempt to elaborate Confucian teachings into a complete philosophical and
religious system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Taoism (the
teachings of Lao-tze, a near-contemporary of Confucius) is explicitly
religious.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is an elaborate
system of animistic teachings, emphasizing paranormal experiences and
manipulation of spiritual forces.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In many ways, Taoism was a systematization of much older animistic
beliefs, its appeal was to the lower classes and to eccentrics who sought to
obtain magical powers and an extended span of life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Chinese society, Taoism functioned as a counterbalance to
the staid and respectable Confucian teachings.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The third religious system of China, Buddhism, was brought
by missionaries from India, perhaps as early as the first century a.d.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Buddhism offered a fully-elaborated
religious and philosophical system.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Its emphasis was on doing good works with a view to obtaining a
favorable incarnation in the next life.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Northern (Mahayana) Buddhism, as practiced in China, was also influenced
in many ways by folk religion and earlier animistic beliefs.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>It
is not known exactly when the first Christian missionaries entered China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first documented missionary in
China was the Nestorian A-lo-pen, who reached the Chinese capital in 635 a.d.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He succeeded in establishing a church
there which flourished for some time, even receiving financial support from the
state.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, in 845 a.d., the
Taoist emperor Wu Tsung issued an edict banning both Buddhism and Christianity,
and both religions suffered severe persecution. <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Buddhism survived this era of persecution, but Nestorian
Christianity did not.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 987 a.d.,
it was reported that no Christians were to be found in China, although small
communities of Nestorian Christians continued to exist on the Chinese border in
Central Asia.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the 13<sup>th</sup>
century, China was conquered by the Mongols, some of whom were Nestorian
Christians; during that same period, papal emissaries succeeded in reaching
China and were received at the imperial court.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some of the Mongol ruling class were converted to
Catholicism, and a bishop was appointed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, with the collapse of the Yuan (Mongol) dynasty in 1368, all
forms of Christianity appear to have been again eradicated from China.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn2" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[2]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>By
the 14<sup>th</sup> century, China was the most populous nation on earth, and
arguably the most civilized.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Its
rate of literacy was higher than that of any European nation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By this time, enough accurate
information about China had reached Europe to make some Europeans became aware
of China's great significance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
avowed purpose of Columbus' voyages of discovery was to reach China and convert
the Chinese to Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He
and others believed that the conversion of China and the destruction of Islam
were the two remaining obstacles to the return of Christ.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>As
trade with the Chinese became more commonplace, Europeans became fascinated
with the high level of Chinese civilization.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In particular, Chinese history was studied with a view to
reconciling it with the Bible; Chinese books were brought back to Europe, and
the Chinese language was avidly studied by scholars who believed that Chinese
was the primeval language of mankind, that its grammar might be reduced to a
set of logical algorithms, or that its written characters represented a
language of pure symbols.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In a letter
of 1689, Leibniz conveys some of this excitement about China: "Europe and
China are like two worlds separated by an enormous distance; may they mutually
instruct and enlarge each other."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn3" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[3]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Sustained
contact between Europe and China began during the late Ming dynasty.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This was a remarkable period in Chinese
history, with a marked openness to new ideas.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Neo-Confucianism dominated the thinking of the educated classes,
but many Chinese were eclectic in their beliefs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The 16<sup>th</sup> century novelist Wu Cheng-en went so far
as to suggest that "The three teachings [i.e. Confucianism, Taoism,
Buddhism] are one."<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus,
Catholic missionaries found Ming society open to at least listen to foreign
religious teachings.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>However,
there were some serious obstacles to Christianity's taking root in China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>First, Eastern and Western thought had
developed along completely different lines.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jacques Genet has suggested that Christianity could not be
assimilated into Chinese society because of fundamental East-West cultural differences,
linguistic differences which prevented true comprehension of important concepts
(e.g. the lack of Chinese words for "be" and "being"), and
philosophical differences:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Europeans thought in terms of "transcendant and immutable
realities", while the Chinese saw reality in sensory terms, as transitory
and ever-changing.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn4" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[4]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While Buddhism taught that all
appearances are illusory, European thought was dominated by Aristotelianism,
with its clear-cut categories and precise logical procedures.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Christian concepts of an omnipotent
God, a created world, and the immortality and indestructibility of the human
soul had no Eastern parallels.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Thus, "Chinese assumptions about life, death, good, evil, progress,
history, society, and individuals were totally different."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn5" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[5]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The second obstacle to Christianity
was the state cult of Confucianism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The rites of Confucianism (funerary customs, veneration of the emperor,
of one's parents, and of one's ancestors) were seen as the glue which held
Chinese society together.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Any
attack or attempt to modify these rites "would mean at least the partial
recasting of the family, and this would be condemned as revolutionary, impious,
and subversive to morals"—as an attack on both the family and the state.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn6" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[6]</span></span></a>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">B.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>History of the Chinese
Rites Controversy<o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The first Jesuit missionaries to
arrive in China were part of an organization already known for its adaptive
approach.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Founded in 1540, the
Society of Jesus is "generally credited with the revival of the tolerant
spirit" in Christianity.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn7" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[7]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jesuit missionaries in Ireland and in
Ethiopia had been instructed to adapt themselves to local conditions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>St. Francis Xavier, the great Jesuit
missionary to India and Japan, had taken the (then unprecedented) step of
seeking to learn the local languages, and had even translated the Christian
catechism into Japanese.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In 1582, two Jesuit missionaries,
Matteo Ricci and Michele Ruggieri, settled in the coastal city of Chaoking,
disguised as Buddhist monks.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Matteo Ricci (1552-1610) was a truly remarkable man, whose influence was
to shape the future of Christianity in China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A brilliant linguist, Ricci soon mastered the Chinese
language and writing system to such a degree that he was able to compose
numerous books in Chinese (beginning as early as 1583).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His chief work, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">T'ien-chu shih-i,</i> a presentation of Christianity, became well-known
among all educated Chinese.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Another work, <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Chi-jen shih-p'ien</i>
("10 paradoxes"), went through several printings during 1607-08, and
was also widely discussed.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ricci
used mnemonic devices to commit the Confucian classics to memory <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">verbatim</i>, a feat which greatly impressed
the Chinese.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Ricci and other Jesuits in China
made use of the early Christian concept of<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">arcana</i> (startling
doctrines which were to be withheld from pagans and catechumens).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn8" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[8]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, he never discussed the doctrines
of Original Sin or the Trinity, even with Chinese converts who had been
Christians for some years, only stating that "God once descended to become
Yeh-su to save the world."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn9" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[9]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1600, Ricci was detained while
traveling to Peking because a crucifix was discovered in his baggage and was
interpreted by the Chinese as an object of black magic aimed at the Emperor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After that, he never displayed it in
public.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When he learned that the
Buddhist monks were held in contempt by the Chinese ruling class, Ricci adopted
the silk robes of a Confucian scholar.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In every way possible, sought to become completely assimilated into Chinese
culture:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"He would raise and
answer questions of a philosophical or religious nature, pass around
literature, pay courtesy calls, attend literary gatherings or banquets . . .
Quietly and modestly, he would allow his broad learning and virtuous behavior
to be known.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Soon people would
make further inquiries, and then the more direct work of doctrinal instruction
could begin."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn10" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[10]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The purpose of this quiet
infiltration of Chinese society was to convert the ruling class, and ultimately
the Chinese emperor.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ricci felt
that if this could be accomplished, the conversion of the entire Chinese nation
was assured.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The open proclamation
of the Gospel might jeopardize this plan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>"I do not think that we shall establish a church," Ricci wrote
in 1596, "but instead a room for discussion and we will say Mass privately
. . . because one proceeds more effectively and with greater fruit here through
conversations than through formal sermons."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn11" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[11]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Again in 1598 he wrote, "The hour
had not yet arrived to begin preaching here the holy Gospel."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn12" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[12]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
In 1601, Ricci was finally successful in obtaining
permission to live in Peking.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He
presented two chiming clocks to the Chinese emperor, and was requested to
adjust and maintain them in the future.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Ricci impressed the Chinese with his knowledge of mathematics and
astronomy, and by displaying an accurate world-map, drawn with China in the
center.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He succeeded in making
several influential Chinese converts, including Xu Ganggi, the most powerful
official at the Chinese court.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ming History</i> states: "Those who
came from the West were intelligent and were men of great capacity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Their only purpose was to preach
religion, with no desire for government honors or for material gain.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For this reason those who were given to
novelties were greatly attracted to them."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn13" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[13]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Ricci soon had to confront the
problem of how to deal with the Confucianism which pervaded Chinese society
from top to bottom.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Unlike
Buddhism, which was early identified as fundamentally opposed to Christianity,
Confucianism's specifically religious teachings were only implicit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This made Confucianism less readily
identifiable as a pagan religion, and suggested to Ricci and others that some
kind of compromise might be workable.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Ricci believed that Christianity
and Confucianism (in its "original", not its Neo-Confucian form)
could be reconciled to stand against Buddhism and Taoism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He obtained a good grasp of
Neo-Confucian metaphysics so that he could argue for an interpretation of Confucianism
which could be reconciled with Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, he used passages in the Confucian classics to
demonstrate the immortality of the soul and the existence of hell.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In his approach to ethics, Ricci
tried to show the parallels between Confucianism and Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, he related the concept of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">hsiao</i> (filial piety) to the Ten
Commandments, and noted the similarity between Confucius' version of the Golden
Rule and Jesus' teaching in Matthew 7:12.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He also sought to show how the Confucian values of <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">pao </i>(reciprocity) and <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">te</i>
(personal virtues) could be incorporated into Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ricci believed there was no essential
contradiction between the two systems of thought, but that the ethical
teachings of Confucianism could be supplemented and perfected by those of
Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus, while
Confucius taught that the expression of love should be differentiated in
accordance with its object, Christianity taught universal love for all men.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Ricci's understanding of and respect for Confucian ethical
teachings won him many admirers among the educated Chinese.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the same time, he did not hesitate
to attack Chinese practices which could not be reconciled with Christian
ethics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was outspoken in his
condemnation of homosexuality (widely practiced among the educated elite in
Ming times), and he insisted that converts dismiss their concubines before he
would consent to baptize them.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Ricci
believed that he had found evidence in the Confucian classics that the ancient
Chinese had once known and venerated the God of the Bible, to whom the classics
referred as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Shang-ti</i> ("The Lord
on High") or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">T'ien</i>
("Heaven").<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He claimed
that the Chinese were a branch of the people of Judaea who had migrated to the
East in ancient times.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ricci
assured the Chinese that all of their ancient sages had been believers in the
One God and hence were in Heaven, but that subsequent generations had forgotten
God's existence.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>So
great was Ricci's admiration for Confucianism that he came to believe that the
teachings of Confucius should be incorporated into Christian ethics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"Ricci's Chinese writings suggest
he had become a convert to Confucianism in the process of teaching
Christianity."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn14" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[14]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Some
Confucian practices were harder to reconcile with Christian beliefs,
however.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These included the solemn
rites in honor of Confucius, at which animals were sacrificed, the rites of
veneration for the emperor, and the rites associated with the dead, including
the preservation of ancestor-tablets designated <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">shen wei</i> ("seat of spirit") which were venerated with
candles, incense, and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">k'out'ou </i>(prostration
with the head touching the floor), and with food offerings and the burning of
paper money.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>All of these
practices were deeply embedded in Chinese culture, and the Jesuits were
hesitant to attack them because their meaning was uncertain.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ricci was assured by his friends among
contemporary Chinese scholars (who, as Neo-Confucian rationalists, denied the
immortality of the soul, as well as any form of divinity in Confucius' person)
that all of these rites were merely civic rituals, devoid of any religious
content.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn15" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[15]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Nevertheless, the issue of how to
deal with the Confucian rites caused much debate among the Jesuits. In their
efforts to accommodate Christianity to the Chinese situation, the Jesuits had
to consider, on one hand, the danger of going so far in their accommodation as
to compromise essential Christian doctrines, and, on the other hand, the danger
of Christianity being rejected by the Chinese if their accommodation did not go
far enough.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some of the Jesuits
(including Ricci) favored a total adaptation of Christianity to Confucianism,
while others argued for making more limited concessions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Conferences were held in 1603 and 1605,
resulting in the first enunciation of a general Jesuit policy on the matter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was decided that certain of the
rites were of a superstitious nature and should be forbidden to Christian
converts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These included
prayer to the dead, the burning of paper money, and the belief that the dead
were nourished by food offerings.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However, it was decided to let the Chinese converts continue to venerate
the dead with food offerings, flowers, candles, ancestor-tablets, mourning
garments, and the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">k'out'ou</i><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn16" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[16]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In addition, the "simple
rite" to Confucius was permitted, while the "solemn rite" (which
occurred several times a year and involved animal sacrifices) was condemned.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Ricci assumed that the original
meaning of the rites was to be found in Confucius' writings, and asserted<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i></b>that
they were not superstitious <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">in their original
form</i> .<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"This ceremony was
begun more for the living than for the dead," he claimed—"that is, to
teach the children and the ignorant ones to honor and serve their living
relatives . . . all this stands outside of idolatry"<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn17" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[17]</span></span></a>
Ricci "looked with careful discrimination upon the rites as one would look
upon an apple which was not entirely bad but whose spoiled part has to be
rejected and whose good part could somehow be saved and accepted"<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn18" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[18]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nevertheless, his ultimate goal was to
gradually replace the rites with Christian practices like the giving of alms to
the poor.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Ricci and the Jesuits believed that
a form of natural religion existed in China, and that Confucius was perfect in
his moral teaching, lacking only the specific truths taught by revelation.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Jesuits made much use of a famous
passage in the Confucian <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Lu Yun</i>
("Analects" 11:12), in which Confucius speaks of "avoiding
spirits."<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They took this lack
of religious emphasis as " a basis for blending its moral and social
strains with the explicity strains of Christianity"<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn19" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[19]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They even suggested that Christian
teachings could be enriched from Confucianism, just as it had earlier been
enriched through its contact with Greek philosophy.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Confucius was, they argued "the equal of the pagan
philosophers and superior to most of them"<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn20" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[20]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The conferences of 1603 and 1605
reaffirmed the Jesuit policy of accommodationism.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Alessandro Valignano urged his fellow-missionaries "to
behave like the natives of the country . . . (to) become Chinese to win China
for Christ."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn21" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[21]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Matteo Ricci continued to work
among the Chinese until his death at Peking in 1610.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He had lived in China for 28 years, made numerous friends
for himself and his teachings, and become "one of the most respected
foreign figures in Chinese history."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn22" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[22]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Even today, he is familiar to all Chinese as "Li
Ma-t'ou."</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Ricci's
career in China set the precedent that Christianity was to be judged </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
from the Confucian perspective (i.e. by the behavior of its
adherents).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>His example created
the expectation that future missionaries would live according to Confucian
standards, an example which few of his successors were able to live up to.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Even during Ricci's lifetime, the
Chinese writer Shen Te-fu described Diego Pantoja, one of Ricci's Jesuit
colleagues and the author of a very successful apologetic work in Chinese (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ch'i-k'o ta-ch'uan</i>, 1614) as "far
from being equal to Ricci."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn23" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[23]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
At the end of his life, Ricci was
continually besieged by multitudes of callers who had heard of his broad
learning and wished to discuss various matters with this wise man from the far
West—illustrating the truth of Clement of Alexandria's claim that
"philosophy is like fish-bait to the pagans."<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The breadth and depth of Matteo
Ricci's accommodation of his life and beliefs to an alien culture is amazing to
us even today.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Apparently, like
Coluccio Salutati, Ricci was so certain that his primary allegiance was to
Jesus Christ that he had no fear or anxiety about "drinking from both
founts" (Christianity and Confucianism, in this case).</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Two of Ricci's aristocratic
converts wrote tributes to him which are quite revealing of the impression he
made on the Chinese.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Li Chih-tsao
wrote:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"The Western religion
has its rules, which were received from the Lord of Heaven. . . . they are
unwilling to compromise on this to receive you.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They want to reform this degenerate world, but they do not
dare dishonor the rules of their religion."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn24" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[24]</span></span></a>
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Hsu Kuang-ch'i, in a preface to
one of Ricci's works, wrote:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>"Ricci's learning touched on every subject, but the main precept
was to serve continually and openly the Divinity on High."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn25" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[25]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These comments tend to refute the
charges of those who accuse Ricci of lax accommodationism or syncretism. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Nevertheless, despite the example of Matteo Ricci and the
Jesuit policy of accommodation, many in China opposed Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The missionaries were accused of
prohibiting the veneration of ancestors, of holding secret meetings, and of
links to subversive groups such as <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Pai-lien-chiao</i>
(the "White Lotus Society").<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>They were suspected of using magic to control their followers, and of
practicing alchemy<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn26" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[26]</span></span></a> (indeed,
many sought out the missionaries because it was believed that they possessed
the secret of transmuting base metals into silver!).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn27" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[27]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The doctrine of Jesus' crucifixion was
also extremely difficult for the Chinese to accept.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>One anti-Christian writer, Yang Guangxian, published a
woodcut of the crucifixion, arguing that this punishment confirmed that Jesus
had been a subversive and a rebel.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn28" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[28]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was also believed by many that
European-style church with towers and crosses created bad <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">feng shui</i> for those who lived and worked in the vicinity.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn29" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[29]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
At the same time, a number of
influential Chinese converts continued to elaborate Ricci's idea of a synthesis
of Christianity and Confucianism, and to implement the Jesuit strategy known in
Chinese as "<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">bu Ru yi Fo</i>"
(supplement Confucianism and displace Buddhism).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn30" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[30]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nevertheless, after Ricci's death,
there were few converts to Christianity from the highest levels of Chinese
society, and Chinese respect for the Christian religion diminished along with
the declining social status of those willing to espouse it.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The first persecution of Christians
in China occurred at Nanjing (1616-21), and arose out of accusations like those
just enumerated, and because of the association of the missionaries with the
Portuguese at Macau.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A few Chinese
converts were martyred, but the missionaries were spared.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
During the 1630's, Franciscan and
Dominican missionaries established themselves at Fukien.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In 1633, the Dominican Juan Bautista
Morales (1597-1664) arrived in China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He was scandalized by the "easy-going compromises" of the
Jesuits.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn31" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[31]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Dominicans and Franciscans had an
entirely different approach to foreign missions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While the Jesuits concealed the crucifix lest it cause
offense, the Dominicans and Franciscans displayed it openly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Instead of spending years mastering
Chinese, they preached through interpreters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While the Jesuits taught that the ancient Chinese sages and
emperors had been worshippers of the true God, the Dominicans and Franciscans
proclaimed openly that Confucius and all the emperors were in hell.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn32" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[32]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While the Jesuits focused their
energies almost exclusively on the intelligentsia, the Dominicans and
Franciscans sought to convert the lower classes, and members of both orders
were willing to contemplate the possibility of martyrdom at the hands of the
heathen.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In 1637, a group of Franciscans and
Dominicans "decided to go to Foochow and tear down the edicts [of a local
governor against Christianity], and to preach publicly Jesus Christ
crucified."<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Holding the
crucifix in air, they loudly proclaimed "that this was the image of the
true God and Man, Savior of the world, creator of all things, who punishes
those who do not keep His law and rewards eternally those who keep it."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn33" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[33]</span></span></a>
This was an approach to evangelism "which had no place in China unless its
purpose was deliberately to antagonize.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn34" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[34]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The missionaries were promptly
arrested, and all the Dominicans and Franciscans (including Morales) were
expelled from the province and had to go to Manila.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In Manila, a conference was held, at which the Jesuit policy
of accommodation was condemned, and Morales was dispatched to Rome to make a
formal complaint about the matter to the pope.<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><o:p></o:p></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>From
the Dominican/Franciscan point of view, Ricci and the Jesuits in China had been
teaching "pure deism, without the Trinity, Incarnation, or
Redemption."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn35" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[35]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Many Chinese saw Christianity as just a
special version of Buddhism, while one modern scholar has suggested that the
form of Christianity taught by Ricci and his colleagues was diluted to the
point where it is best described as "Confucian monotheism."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn36" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[36]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>One
of Ricci's contemporary critics wrote as follows: "Being more a politician
than a theologian, he discovered the secret of remaining peacefully in
China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The kings found in him a
man full of complaisance; the pagans a minister who accommodated himself to
their superstitions; the mandarins a polite courtier skilled in all the
trickery of courts; and the devil a faithful servant, who far from destroying,
established his reign among the heathen, and even extended it to the
Christians."<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He went on to
accuse the Jesuits of "teaching the Christians to assist and cooperate at
the worship of idols, provided that they only addressed their devotions to a cross
covered with flowers, or secretly attached to one of the candles which were
lighted in the temples of the false gods."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn37" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[37]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Among the Jesuit actions which the
Dominicans and Franciscans criticized were their failure to promote the laws of
the Church, their failure to preach the doctrine of the crucifixion, their
adoption of Chinese dress, their "intellectual apostolate," and their
refusal to say that Confucius was in hell.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn38" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[38]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In February 1643, Morales arrived
at Rome and made his formal complaint in the form of 17 <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">quaesita</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These
included questions about contributions by Christians to pagan sacrifices and
festivals, the cult of Confucius, the veneration of ancestors, the feeding of
the dead as through they were living, the use of ancestral tablets, funerals,
about whether applicants for baptism should be informed that their new faith
forbade all idolatry and sacrifice, about the use of the Chinese term <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sheng</i> (holy) in a Christian context, the
veneration of the Emperor, prayers and sacrifices for non-Christian relatives,
and whether, since some Chinese were scandalized by the crucifixion, was it
necessary to speak to them of it or to show them a crucifix?<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn39" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[39]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Morales' <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">quaesita</i> changed the focus of the discussion from the
"original meaning" of the rites to what the rites signified as
actually practiced in the 17<sup>th</sup> century.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn40" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[40]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
Meanwhile, in China, the Ming dynasty fell (1644) to the
invading Manchu dynasty.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The
conquest of China by a foreign dynasty resulted in the decline of the "syncretic
spirit" of the late Ming period, and a "stricter sense of
orthodoxy" arose.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn41" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[41]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the same time, the new dynasty
established a Bureau of Astronomy and, impressed by the scientific knowledge of
the Jesuits, placed it under the supervision of the Jesuits Johann Adam Schall
and Ferdinand Verbiest.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jesuit
Astronomers became a fixture at Peking from this time until the dissolution of
the order (1773).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Schall enjoyed a
close and informal relationship with the first Manchu emperor, who nearly
consented to be baptized but was dissuaded by the eunuchs "who cultivated
his lusts."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn42" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[42]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jesuits were also employed as
cartographers, and had mapped all the provinces of China by 1715.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn43" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[43]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In Rome, after mature
consideration, Innocent X issued a decree forbidding ("until it shall be
decided otherwise") the cult of Confucius, ancestor veneration, and the
use of ancestral tablets by Chinese converts to Christianity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was judged that "such public
acts of cult would not be in any way allowable to Christians," even if
attention were directed to a hidden crucifix in the same room, and even if
performed by "instructed Christians with carefully purified
intentions".<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn44" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[44]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
This prohibition did not reach
China until 1649.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By then, the
Jesuits, who resented the criticism of their work by those who had little
understanding of Chinese language and culture, had put aside whatever
disagreements existed among them about the accommodation of the Confucian
rites, and "appear eventually to have rallied almost solidly in support of
Ricci's views."<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Meanwhile,
"nearly all the Franciscans and Dominicans had been won to the Jesuit
position, and only the Dominicans continued as a body to stand against it."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn45" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[45]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In 1651, the Jesuits dispatched
their own delegation to Rome, led by Martin Martini.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They presented the Pope with four propositions
(corresponding to four of Morales' <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">quaesita</i>),
claiming that their practices had been grossly and deliberately misrepresented
by the Dominicans.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Jesuits
articulated Ricci's claim that the Confucian rites "were originally
instituted for an exclusively civil cult" and thus were not religious in
nature, although they employed "objects and gestures similar to those
which the Westerners reserved for religious worship."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn46" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[46]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Alexander VII responded in 1656
with a papal decree permitting the four Jesuit propositions.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The same pope granted permission to
Martini, in his published history of China (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Sinicae
historiae decas prima res, </i>1658), to make use of a Biblical chronology
based on the Septuagint rather than the Vulgate, since this would harmonize
with the Chinese account of history, which dated the beginning of Chinese
history to 2952 b.c. (five years after the Septuagint date for the universal
flood, but several hundred years before the Vulgate date; to deny the earlier
date would have alienated the Chinese).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In this way, information brought from China actually came to have an
influence on the criticism of the Biblical text, and on European
historiography.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn47" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[47]</span></span></a><u><o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>In
1659, the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Congregatio de Propaganda Fide</i>
issued a set of instructions for missionaries, asking them to adapt
Christianity to indigenous cultures and to avoid imposing European customs on
converts to Christianity:</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>"Make
no endeavor and in no way persuade these people to change their rites, habits
and mores as long as these are not very manifestly contrary to religion and
good mores.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Indeed, what would be
more absurd than to introduce Gaul, Spain, Italy or some other part of Europe
to China?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Bring not these things
but the faith, which neither rejects nor harms the rites and customs of any
nation provided they are not perverse, but which rather desires them to remain intact.
. . It will be more prudent not to bear judgment or at least not to condemn
blindly and excessively; what remains truly perverse must be eradicated more by
nods and silence than by words . . ."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn48" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[48]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
A new persecution of the
missionaries and of Chinese converts to Christianity arose in 1664, at the
instigation of the court official Yang Guanxian.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Most of the missionaries were arrested and exiled to
Canton.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Johann Adam Schall, the
court astronomer, was imprisoned and sentenced to death, but was saved when an
earthquake occurred on the eve of his execution.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As a result, Schall was freed, and Yang was disgraced and
exiled from court.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The missionaries expelled to Canton
included 19 Jesuits, 3 Dominicans, and one Franciscan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>While waiting for permission to reenter
China, they held a 40-day conference (ending 26 January 1668), which resulted
in the adoption of 42 articles.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The 41<sup>st</sup> of these articles was a statement in support of the
papal decree of 1656:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"the
door of salvation must not be closed on the countless Chinese people who would
be kept away from the Christian religion if they were prohibited from doing
what they can licitly and in good faith do, and what they could not be forced
to omit except with the greatest inconvenience."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn49" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[49]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Later that year (1668), the
Dominicans in Manila dispatched Juan Polanco to Rome to ask whether Alexander
VII's permission of 1656 reversed Innocent X's prohibition of 1645.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In the following year (1669),
Clement IX issued the third papal decree to date bearing on the Chinese Rites
question.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He stated that both 1645
prohibition and the 1656 permission remained in force.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In effect, this decree left the matter
to the missionaries' discretion, a situation which favored the Jesuits.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In 1681, the Jesuits requested a renewal
of the papal approval (granted 1615, but never used) to translate the liturgy
into Chinese for use by native priests.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>This request was denied, since "Rome believed . . . that only
through Latin could the Chinese clergy be kept in touch with the life of the
Church and be prevented from drifting off into heresy and schism."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn50" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[50]</span></span></a>
<u><o:p></o:p></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In 1687, the Jesuits issued their
monumental <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Confucius Sinarum philosophus</i>,
a Latin translation of the Confucian classics.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This work was a collaborative effort of 17 Jesuits who had
spent a combined total of 442 years of residence in China.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn51" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[51]</span></span></a>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In 1692, the Chinese emperor Kang Hsi
issued a Toleration Edict, granting freedom of worship to Christians in
China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At this time, there were 75
priests in China, including 38 Jesuits and nine Dominicans.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Six of the Jesuits were native Chinese
converts.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>There were missionaries
and native Christians in every Chinese province except Kansu in the far West.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn52" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[52]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By 1700, 300,000 Chinese had been
converted to Christianity.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn53" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[53]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Franciscan Antonio Caballero alone
baptized some 5,000 peasant converts in Shandong between 1650 and 1665.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn54" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[54]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In the following year (1693), Charles
Maigrot of the French <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Missions Etrangeres</i>,
Vicar Apostolicus of Fujian, issued a mandate containing seven articles.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This mandate banned the use of the
Chinese terms T'ien-chu and Shang-ti as names for God, banned the use of
ancestral tablets by Christians, and forbade the use of the 1656 papal
permission, which Maigrot claimed had been fraudulently obtained by the
Jesuits.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He also condemned as
"false, temerious, and scandalous" the proposition that the cult
which Confucius rendered to the spirits was political rather than religious.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn55" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[55]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Maigrot's mandate resulted in an
uproar from the Jesuits, who had been lulled into a sense of security by the
decree of Clement IX (1669).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In
1697, they reopened the Chinese Rites case at Rome, and the Innocent XII
ordered the Inquisition to examine the entire question.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Numerous books and pamphlets were
published by European scholars, supporting both sides of the debate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Leibniz wrote in defense of the
Jesuits. In 1700, the Sorbonne (where the theological faculty was then
dominated by Jansenists) condemned five propositions drawn from the writings of
the Jesuits Louis Le Comte and Charles Le Gobien, including the statements that
"the people of Chine preserved for more than 2000 years a knowledge of the
true God, and honored him in a manner which can serve as an example and as
instructive even to Christians," that "God's Spirit was active in
China for 2000 years," and that "Christianity is not foreign to
China, but was professed there earlier, when they worshipped the same God as
the Christians worshipped and recognized as well as they the Lord of
Heaven."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn56" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[56]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Le Comte had also made the
shocking statement that the Chinese had possessed "knowledge of the true
God and practiced the purest maxims of morality, while Europeans and almost all
the rest of the world lived in error and corruption."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn57" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[57]</span></span></a>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Jansenists argued that since
grace was irresistible, the Chinese had clearly demonstrated through their
failure to convert to Christianity that they had not been recipients of God's
grace.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They found the Jesuit
tendency to make compromises in God's name "incomprehensible and
repulsive." <a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn58" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[58]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
While Europeans were debating these
matters, four Jesuits approached the Chinese emperor (30 Nov 1700) in the hope
of obtaining from him an "authentic statement" on the meaning of the
rites.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>They submitted to him a
copy of their own definition of the rites as "civic rituals," and
requested his "instruction or correction."<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The emperor replied on the following day, endorsing the
Jesuit definition without corrections.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn59" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[59]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This statement was dispatched to Rome,
along with two Jesuit experts on Chinese civilization, Caspar Castner and Francois
Noel.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In November 1704, after seven years
of exhaustive study, Clement XI issued a "earnest and painstaking"
decree summarizing the history of the controversy up to that point and upholding
Maigrot's<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>mandate; further, it
banned Christian participation in the "simple rite" to Confucius
(which Maigrot had permitted).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It
found both the Confucian cult and the ancestral cult to be essentially
religious in nature, and bishops and vicars apostolic to "strive gradually
to remove and replace all pagan practices with those recognized and followed by
the Roman Catholic Church."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn60" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[60]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Meanwhile, the papal emissary Carlo
Tommaso Maillard de Tournon<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> </i></b>had departed for China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Although he had not seen the 1704
decree, he was familiar with its general content.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In China, Tournon found the Jesuits supporting themselves by
means of usury (though at a lower rate than customary in China), and quickly
put a stop to this.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn61" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[61]</span></span></a> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Tournon received a cordial welcome
to the imperial court on 31 December 1705.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was granted two further audiences with the emperor (29-30
June 1706), but avoided discussing the Confucian Rites question because he knew
it was no longer negotiable.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Maigrot
(whose mandate of 1693 had resulted in the recent papal decree) acted as
Tournon's interpreter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At one
point, the emperor, disgusted by Maigrot's poor spoken Chinese, asked him to
interpret four Chinese characters written on a scroll hanging behind the
throne.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Maigrot was able to read
only one of them; moreover, he was unable to recognize Matteo Ricci's Chinese
name in written form, and admitted that he was unfamiliar with Ricci's <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">T'ien-chu shih-i </i>(which all educated
Chinese had read).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The emperor
warned Tournon against any interference with the Chinese rites and dismissed
him from court, expressing his astonishment "that such dunces should claim
to decide the meaning of texts and ceremonies of several thousand years'
antiquity."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn62" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[62]</span></span></a> </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Maigrot was banished, Tournon
departed for Nanjing, and the emperor issued a decree expelling all Christian
missionaries who opposed the Confucian rites, and requiring that all
missionaries obtain a <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p'iao</i> (permit)
to reside in China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This was
followed (1707) by a further decree, forbidding all preaching against the Rites
on pain of death.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Thus K'ang Hsi,
the same emperor who had issued the Toleration Edict of 1692, reversed his
previously favorable attitude toward Christianity.<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"><o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
That same year (1707), Tournon
issued his own mandate, threatening excommunication to any missionary who
disobeyed the papal decrees concerning ancestor veneration or the Confucian
rites.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Anticipating objections, Tournon
specifically disallowed the pretexts of "great danger" or of
adherence to the papal decree of 1656.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Tournon's mandate was based on a secret decision made at Rome in
November 1704, in anticipation of just such an emergency.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In consequence, Tournon was escorted to
Macau, where he remained until his death in 1710.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Thus, the missionaries had to choose
between obtaining the emperor's <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">p'iao</i>
(and thereby agreeing not to oppose the Confucian rites), or obeying Tournon's
mandate (and risking death at the hands of the Chinese authorities).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Many of them chose to disobey Tournon,
claiming that he had exceeded his authority.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In any case, the result of the 1704 decree, although not
published at Rome until 1709 or promulgated at Peking until 1715,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>was to polarize the missionaries.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn63" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[63]</span></span></a>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In 1710, Clement XI reiterated his
1704 decree and upheld Tournon's mandate; in addition, he forbade any
unauthorized publication about the matter of the Chinese rites, threatening
excommunication in case of disobedience.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
This was followed in 1715 by the
papal bull <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ex illa die</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In it, the pope claimed that the
resolution of the Chinese Rites controversy had been the main concern of his
papacy from the outset.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He enumerated
the various subterfuges which had been used by the contending parties to evade
the prompt observance of the papal decrees, "with grave damage to our
pontifical authority, scandal to the faithful, and detriment to the salvation
of souls."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn64" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[64]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The bull reiterated the decrees of 1704
and 1710, as well as Tournon's mandate of 1707, and included the formula of an
oath of observance to be taken on the Bible by all missionaries.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ex
illa die</i> was promulgated in Peking in 1716, and all the missionaries appear
to have complied with it, however reluctantly.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>When the emperor learned of it, he ordered the vicar general
of Peking to recover all copies of the bull and return them to Rome, and a new
persecution of Christians ensued.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In 1719, another papal emissary, Carlo
Ambrogio Mezzabarba, was dispatched to the Chinese court.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Like Tournon, Mezzabarba had received
secret instructions at Rome.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>During 1720 and 1721, he had several audiences with the emperor, to whom
he disclosed that he was authorized to grant "certain permissions,"
and to convey the Emperor's thoughts directly to the Pope.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn65" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[65]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In 1721, Mezzabarba issued a
pastoral letter to all missionaries.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In it, he reaffirmed <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ex illa die</i>;
however, with a view to the "eventual removal of all pagan
practices," he included eight permissions concerning the Chinese
rites.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These included permission
to use funeral tablets, as long as they were inscribed only with the name of
the deceased, with name only, permission to participate in ceremonies in honor
of Confucius or of the dead, as long as they were "not superstitious or
suspected of being so," and the use of candles, incense, food offerings,
and prostration at funerals and before memorial tablets and tombs.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In order to keep these permissions from
becoming publicly known, Mezzabarba stipulated that they not be translated into
Chinese or Manchu "unless necessary or practical."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn66" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[66]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In 1724, with the death of emperor
K'ang Hsi, a new and particularly severe persecution of Christians was
undertaken by his son and successor, Yung Cheng.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>With the exception of the astronomers employed at Peking,
all the missionaries were exiled to Macau (they were allowed to return in
1736).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The new emperor issued an
edict declaring Christianity a "heterodox sect," closing the
churches, and specifically canceling the Toleration Edict of 1692. This edict
set the tone for the remainder of the 18<sup>th</sup> century.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Since Christians were no longer
permitted to participate in traditional Chinese ceremonies, Christianity was
now viewed as a foreign intrusion, and became the target of increasingly severe
persecution, culminating in the early decades of the 19<sup>th</sup> century
when a number of Catholic missionaries were executed for repeated defiance of
imperial edicts.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn67" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[67]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In 1733, Francois de la
Purification affirmed Mezzabarba's permissions in two pastoral letters, but these
(and the permissions) were subsequently annulled by Clement XII in 1735.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Finally,
in 1742, Benedict XIV issued the bull <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ex
quo singulari</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Identifying
China as the Holy See's "mission of predilection," this bull
reiterated the papal decrees of 1704, 1710, and 1715 (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Ex illa die</i>), nullified all permissions or exceptions ("the
aforesaid permissions are to be considered as if they never existed, and we
condemn them and their practice as altogether superstitious"), and
prohibited all future discussion of the matter.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Again, an oath of observance was imposed on all missionaries
in China.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-left: .5in;">
Here the controversy ended.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Church had "made it impossible
for a </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
scholar-official to be a Christian or for a Christian to
become a scholar, destroying the possibility of Jesuit peaceful penetration of
Chinese society.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>. . If these consequences were fully
understood by the Holy See, it must have felt that the integrity of the faith
required payment of so high a price."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn68" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[68]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Latourette argues that although the
papal decrees tended to make the winning of nominal adherents more difficult,
they also maintained high standards for the Church.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn69" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[69]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>According to Mungello, the Chinese
Rites Controversy "did great damage to the Christian mission in China but
may have been an inevitable part of the cultural encounter."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn70" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[70]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
As late as1930, the prohibition of
publication on the Chinese Rites was upheld.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn71" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[71]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>However, in 1939, as a result of
persecution which resulted when Catholic students in Japan allegedly refused to
bow to a Shinto shrine, the bull <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Plane copertum
est </i>was issued, reversing the Church's position on the Chinese Rites and
describing such actions as "purely civil . . . with no religious
significance."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn72" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[72]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">III.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Insights for teaching
E.S.L. at Biola<o:p></o:p></i></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Jesuits clearly practiced a
model of accommodation (or "qualified accommodation," to use Douglass
Geivett's categories)<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn73" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[73]</span></span></a>
in their approach to Chinese institutions, while the Dominicans used a
polemical approach.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the eyes of
his detractors, at least, Matteo Ricci followed the path of least resistance,
resulting in "a reconstruction of Christian belief that is in important
respects discontinuous with the tradition that gave it birth."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn74" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[74]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>A more sympathetic (and perhaps more
accurate) statement about Ricci is that he did everything he could to avoid
conflict, but at the same time was unwilling to compromise what he regarded as
the essentials of the Christian faith.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The question as to whether or not the result was theologically valid was
argued for more than a century after his death. </div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
In addition to the accommodationist
and polemical models, Geivett proposes a "redemptive model" which
"seeks to foster a new culture" in light of the "fundamental
human concern<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;"> to acquire knowledge for
the sake of human flourishing</i>."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn75" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[75]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Such an approach is reflected in a
statement of Giulio Aleni, one of the Jesuit missionaries in China.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Aleni said (1627) that "he was
only a humble traveler who had gone through many mortal dangers for the
propagation of the teachings he held.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>He had come to this land of superior culture to seek out persons in the
right Way to learn from them, so that together they might further this serious
business of avoiding perdition."<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In saying this, Aleni admitted that he had much to learn from the
Chinese, that even as a Christian missionary, he did not have all the
answers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>This seems to me to be a
proper attitude for any teacher, whether his students are Christian or
non-Christian.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In our finite
knowledge and understanding, we all have a great deal to learn from each other.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Most of the historians of the
Jesuit missionaries in China and the Chinese Rites Controversy do not consider
the supernatural dimension of these matters.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>On one occasion, as Matteo Ricci was crossing a river on a
ferry, a "shadowy figure" appeared to him on the deck.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The figure asked him, "So you are
traveling to destroy the ancient religion of this country and establish a new
one?"<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"Are you God or
the devil, that you know my secret?" Ricci cried.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"I am not the devil."<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The figure answered.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>"I am God." Ricci fell on his
knees, and the mysterious presence promised to guide him in his mission.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn76" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[76]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Later, in 1600, while Ricci was on his
way to Peking, Xu Ganggi (a powerful offical whom Ricci was to baptize the
following year) dreamed of a temple with three chapels.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The first contained a shrine to God,
the second a shrine to "a son," and the third one was empty.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn77" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[77]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Years later, Xu understood this as a
supernatural revelation of the doctrine of the Trinity (which Ricci had been
extremely reluctant to discuss with him).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Whatever
one chooses to make of these phenomena, they remind us that God is present and
active in this world, and profoundly concerned with the outcome of all that we
do, including our teaching.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>However difficult or discouraging our task may seem, we know that God is
involved in it in ways that we may never see or understand in this life.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
The Jesuit missionaries had to
struggle to understand the Chinese language and civilization and to make the
message of Christianity comprehensible to a completely unfamiliar culture.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For perhaps the first time, Europeans
were forced to "separate what was essential to Christian faith from what
was cultural and secondary."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn78" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[78]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The task of the Jesuits was to
"disengage Christianity from the non-Christian ingredients in the Western
civilization and to present Christianity . . . not as the local religion of the
West, but as a universal religion with a message for all mankind."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn79" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[79]</span></span></a>
Yang T'ing-yuan, one of Matteo Ricci's converts, later described how he came
gradually to understand that "this Lord is not "of the far West"
but stands external to any particular place and time."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn80" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[80]</span></span></a>
</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Latourette observes that "in
the only countries where Christianity has triumphed<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>over a high civilization, as in the older Mediterranean
world and the nearer East, it has done so by conforming in part to older
cultures."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn81" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[81]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Christ's kingdom is not of this world,
but Christianity always has cultural features.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Not only must the universal message of Christianity be
distinguished from its cultural trappings, but also, ways must be sought to
adapt that message to fresh circumstances.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>These circumstances must be carefully analyzed and
understood, as the Jesuits (and eventually many others) sought to do in the
case of the Chinese Rites.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>"The obscurity surrounding their origins, the contradiction between
their seeming preternatural implications and the professed materialism of many
of their most observant practitioners, the uncertainty of the extent to which
the people as a whole interpreted them in a superstitious sense, were the
elements which made the problem one of peculiar complexity."<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>I face a problem of comparable
complexity as I attempt to understand my Asian students' behavior and religious
beliefs, and try to decide which of their presuppositions I ought to challenge,
and how to go about it.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Great
caution is necessary here, and much careful thought.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Several observations from my
reading are particularly insightful about Asian culture.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>For example, the point was made (in
reference to the question of whether or not the Confucian rites are
"religious") that there is such a thing as "diffused
religion," as distinguished from "institutional religion."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn82" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[82]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Some form "diffused
religion," i.e. elements of Buddhism and shamanism, appears to be mixed in
with the Christianity of many of my students.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Whether this is a harmful or a harmless form of
accommodation needs to be determined.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>In his evaluation of the Confucian rites, Ricci considered them only in
"institutional" terms (their origin and purpose), but "failed to
adequately take cognizance of the rife superstition [i.e. "diffused
religion"] among the populace."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn83" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[83]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Another cause of misunderstanding
is that in the West there is "an enormous . . . separation between the
living and the dead and between the profane and the holy."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn84" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[84]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>We are trained to think in
Aristotelian categories, but we find that in Eastern thought the divisions
between things are far less clear.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Some of the conflicts and misunderstandings which we experience in
dealing with Asian students arise from (literally) different ways of
thinking.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
At the same time, our students look
to us (and to the "Christian West") for guidance.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It is for this reason that they have
chosen to attend a Western seminary instead of a seminary in Korea or
Taiwan.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The West is regarded as
"closer to the source" of Christian thought, and has a Christian
tradition of much greater depth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>As a result of ongoing persecutions and the dissolution of the Jesuit
order (1773), the number of missionaries in China greatly declined.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Left in the charge of native Christian
leaders, the Chinese church had suffered "marked decadence" by 1800.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn85" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[85]</span></span></a></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Another very important thing to
keep in mind is the Eastern assumptions about the role of the teacher.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the West, a teacher is seen as an
expert in his field who transmits what he knows to others, or as an experienced
scholar who guides the less experienced in their research.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>In the East, the teacher's character is
of equal or greater importance than what he knows.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Asians are "easily scandalized by the very slightest
appearance of an imperfect example in persons who claim to teach others."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn86" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[86]</span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Before a teacher can pose a credible
challenge to Asian students' assumptions, he must earn the right to do so.</div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
Finally, it must be remembered that
any challenge to what exists is a risky business, whether the challenge is to
existing paradigms of an academic discipline, vested interests, religious
beliefs, or cultural <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mores</i>.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>As noted by the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Congregatio de Propaganda Fide</i> (1659), "There exists no cause
of hatred and alienation more poignant than the tampering with national
customs, above all, of those which men have grown accustomed to from the memory
of their forefathers.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Especially
is this true when you substitue and bring in the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">mores</i> of your country in place of those you have removed."<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftn87" name="_ftnref" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[87]</span></span></a>
</div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[1]</span></span></a>
The summary which follows is based on the following sources: <u>The Catholic
Encyclopedia</u>, s.v. "Chinese Rites Controversy" and "Ricci,
Matteo"; Vincent Cronin, <u>The Wise Man from the West</u> (New York: EP
Dutton & Co. 1955); George H. Dunne, <u>Generation of Giants:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Story of the Jesuits in China in
the Last Decades of the Ming Dynasty</u> (Notre Dame IN:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>U of ND Press 1962); Kenneth S.
Latourette, <u>A History of Christian Missions in China</u> (New York:
Macmillan Co., 1929); George Minamiki,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><u>The Chinese Rites Controversy from Its Beginning to Modern Times</u>
(Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1985); David E. Mungello, <u>Curious
Land:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Jesuit Accommodation and the
Origins of Sinology</u> (Honolulu: University of Hawii Press 1989); David E.
Mungello, <u>The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800</u> (Lanham
MD:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rowman & Littlefield
Publishers, 1999); Charles E. Ronan and Bonnie B.C. Oh (eds.), <u>East Meets
West:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Jesuits in China, 1582-1773</u>
(Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1988); </div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
John D. Young, <u>East-West Synthesis:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Matteo Ricci and Confucianism</u> (Hong
Kong:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Centre of Asian Studies,
University of Hong Kong, 1980).</div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[2]</span></span></a>
It is recorded, however, that there was a persecution of Nestorian Christians
in China as late as 1540 (Latourette) </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[3]</span></span></a>
John D. Young, <u>East-West Synthesis:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Matteo Ricci and Confucianism</u> (Hong Kong:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong, 1980), i.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[4]</span></span></a>
David E. Mungello, <u>The Great Encounter of China and the West, 1500-1800</u>
(Lanham MD:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Rowman &
Littlefield Publishers, 1999), 45.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[5]</span></span></a>
Young, 26.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[6]</span></span></a>
Kenneth S. Latourette, <u>A History of Christian Missions in China</u> (New
York: Macmillan Co., 1929), 41, 134.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[7]</span></span></a>
Young, 2.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[8]</span></span></a>
George H. Dunne, <u>Generation of Giants:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The Story of the Jesuits in China in the Last Decades of the Ming
Dynasty</u> (Notre Dame IN:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>U of
ND Press 1962), 5.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn9" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[9]</span></span></a>
Young, 38.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn10" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[10]</span></span></a>
Bernard Hung-Kay Luk, "A Serious Matter of Life and Death:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Learned Conversations at Foochow in
1627," in Charles E. Ronan and Bonnie B.C. Oh (eds.), <u>East Meets
West:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Jesuits in China,
1582-1773</u> (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1988), 175.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn11" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[11]</span></span></a>
Dunne, 46.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn12" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[12]</span></span></a>
Dunne, 55.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn13" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[13]</span></span></a>Albert
Chan, "Late Ming Society and the Jesuit Missionaries," in Charles E.
Ronan and Bonnie B.C. Oh (eds.), <u>East Meets West:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Jesuits in China, 1582-1773</u> (Chicago: Loyola
University Press, 1988), 160.</div>
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<br /></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn14" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[14]</span></span></a>
Young, 43.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn15" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[15]</span></span></a>
George Minamiki,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><u>The Chinese
Rites Controversy from Its Beginning to Modern Times</u> (Chicago: Loyola
University Press, 1985), 22.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn16" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[16]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 19.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn17" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[17]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 18.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn18" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[18]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 17.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn19" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[19]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Great Encounter</u>, 37.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn20" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[20]</span></span></a>
David E. Mungello, <u>Curious Land:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>Jesuit Accommodation and the Origins of Sinology</u> (Honolulu:
University of Hawii Press 1989), 57.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn21" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[21]</span></span></a>
Young, 8.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn22" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[22]</span></span></a>
<u>The Catholic Encyclopedia</u>, s.v. "Ricci, Matteo."</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn23" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[23]</span></span></a>
Young, 49.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn24" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[24]</span></span></a>
Willard J. Peterson, "Why Did They Become Christians?<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yang T'ing-yuan, Li Chih-tsao, and Hsu
Kuang-ch'i," in Charles E. Ronan and Bonnie B.C. Oh (eds.), <u>East Meets
West:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The Jesuits in China,
1582-1773</u> (Chicago: Loyola University Press, 1988), 133.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn25" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[25]</span></span></a>
Peterson, 145.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn26" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[26]</span></span></a>
This was perhaps suggested by Christian teachings about the immortality of the
soul; alchemy was commonly practiced by Taoist adepts who sought the
"elixir of life." </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn27" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[27]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Curious Land</u>, 71.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn28" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[28]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Great Encounter</u>, 45.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn29" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[29]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Great Encounter</u>, 41.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn30" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[30]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Great Encounter</u>, 16.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn31" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[31]</span></span></a>
Latourette, 135.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn32" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[32]</span></span></a>Vincent
Cronin, <u>The Wise Man from the West</u> (New York: E.P. Dutton & Co.
1955), 280</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn33" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[33]</span></span></a>
Dunne, 257.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn34" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[34]</span></span></a>
Ibid.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn35" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[35]</span></span></a>
Young, 24.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn36" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[36]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Great Encounter</u>, 21.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn37" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[37]</span></span></a>
Young, 24-25.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn38" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[38]</span></span></a>
Dunn, 270.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn39" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[39]</span></span></a>
<u>The Catholic Encyclopedia</u>, s.v. "Chinese Rites Controversy."</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn40" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[40]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 28.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn41" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[41]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Great Encounter</u>, 24.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn42" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[42]</span></span></a>
Ibid.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn43" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[43]</span></span></a>
Ronan and Oh, 227.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn44" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[44]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 26-27.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn45" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[45]</span></span></a>
Latourette, 135-138.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn46" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[46]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 11, 29-30.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn47" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[47]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Great Encounter</u>, 61; Mungello, <u>Curious Land</u>, 103.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn48" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[48]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 30-32.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn49" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[49]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 33.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn50" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[50]</span></span></a>
Latourette, 133.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn51" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[51]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Curious Land</u>, 297.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn52" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[52]</span></span></a>
Latourette 128.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn53" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[53]</span></span></a>
Cronin, 279.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn54" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[54]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Great Encounter</u>, 18.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn55" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[55]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 38.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn56" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[56]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Curious Land</u>, 333-334.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn57" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[57]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Curious Land</u>, 338.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn58" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[58]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Curious Land</u>, 340.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn59" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[59]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 40-42.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn60" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[60]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 43-50.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn61" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[61]</span></span></a>
Latourette, 142.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn62" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[62]</span></span></a>
Cronin, 282.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn63" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[63]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 56.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn64" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[64]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 59-60.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn65" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[65]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 63.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn66" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[66]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 64-65.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn67" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[67]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, x.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn68" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[68]</span></span></a>
Dunne, 300.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn69" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[69]</span></span></a>
Latourette, 154-155.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn70" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[70]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Great Encounter</u>, 21.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn71" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[71]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 93.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn72" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[72]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, xi.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn73" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[73]</span></span></a>
R. Douglass Geivett: "Christianity and the Plight of the Humanities"
(unpublished paper, 2003).</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn74" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[74]</span></span></a>
Geivett, 7.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn75" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[75]</span></span></a>
Geivett, 11.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn76" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[76]</span></span></a>
Cronin, 122.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn77" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[77]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Great Encounter</u>, 15-16.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn78" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[78]</span></span></a>
Mungello, <u>Great Encounter</u>, 20.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn79" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[79]</span></span></a>
Arnold Toynbee, quoted in Young, 54.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn80" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[80]</span></span></a>
Peterson, 135.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn81" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[81]</span></span></a>
Latourette, 154.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn82" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[82]</span></span></a>
C.K. Yang, quoted in Minamiki, 3.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn83" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[83]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 23.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn84" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[84]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 11.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn85" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[85]</span></span></a>
Latourette, 154.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn86" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[86]</span></span></a>
Young, 6.</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="text-indent: .5in;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=5580120266217848359#_ftnref" name="_ftn87" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;">[87]</span></span></a>
Minamiki, 30-31.</div>
</div>
</div>
<!--EndFragment-->Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5580120266217848359.post-73906097447842394022012-01-27T17:40:00.000-08:002012-01-27T17:40:24.015-08:00A Star in the East<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgr49zZBJhcVeUoeQMSS6NYNf8cLxoGFtjyzZ-LXEGaRoVMzgXX7LNU2HCqHnPUVOjKuRFrHEKz6jR-8hExBx0ApfIipdtP7ADRVSJld0zkxkJ4oVETMCX99mhNgTaektb-NQ92S35Tb1U/s1600/schola+linguarum.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="287" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgr49zZBJhcVeUoeQMSS6NYNf8cLxoGFtjyzZ-LXEGaRoVMzgXX7LNU2HCqHnPUVOjKuRFrHEKz6jR-8hExBx0ApfIipdtP7ADRVSJld0zkxkJ4oVETMCX99mhNgTaektb-NQ92S35Tb1U/s320/schola+linguarum.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>Greetings!<br />
As I work to complete my Ph.D dissertation on Astrological Manuscripts from the Republic of Georgia, I have decided to upload a number of my earlier academic papers (pertaining to Astrology, Anthropology, and the Caucasus region) and make them available on this website.<br />
<br />
Most of these papers were written in support of my dissertation project and are cited in the paper.<br />
<br />
I anticipate completing the dissertation during the current (Spring 2012) semester, with graduation either in May or December of this year (Cook School of Intercultural Studies, Biola University).<br />
<br />
Please feel free to contact me if you have any interest in the topics discussed here. I look forward to corresponding and networking with my colleagues in various disciplines. Much more to follow!<br />
<br />
Timothy P. Grove, Assistant Professor IIA<br />
English Language Studies Program<br />
Biola University<br />
La Mirada, California<br />
Timothy P. Grovehttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06571071087416477865noreply@blogger.com0